317 Bio Study Guide I Definitions: CHAPTER I Oikos- Environment Gaia- Life produces its own life Biosphere- Earth Region- Continents, etc Landscapes- Energy/Nutrient exhange, across ecosystems Ecosystem- Community + abiotic factors Community- Interacting organisms, same area Population- All species in same area Species- Potentially interbreeding, similar organisms Organ systems Tissues Cells- Biotic Molecules Natural History- Study of how organisms/area influenced by climate, soil, predators, etc Physiological Ecology- Species/environment-- how/why questions Population Ecology- Size/speciation/evolution/competition/energy. Community Ecology- Species diversity, competition, succession Biogeochemical Eco- Nutrient cycle, productivity, decomposition Systems Eco- Math/Modeling Palynology- Pollen grain/spore studies Ecology- true science- objective Environmental science- Man's impact on nature Environmentalism- Aesthetics/values-- subjective PeopleHaeckel- "Ecology" termed in 1866 ESA- Ecological society of America- 1915 Bernd Heinrich- Small scale, bees in a field. Field research- Max realism, min control Mesocosm- ex- container in a field Microcosm- lab only EP and HT Odum- Fathers of Modern ecology Bartram, John- America's first naturalist Humboldt, A.V.- 1800s- zones of vegetation due to temp, S. America Ellen Swallow- Tech/dev having effect on environment Peter Kalm- Plant succession F.E. Clements- American Plant eco E.A. Birge, C. Juday- Limnology- Oceanography of inland bodies of water 1903- Adams- University of Chicago- Animal ecology Arthur Tansley- "Ecosystem", 1935 Cowles, Henry- Community concepts in ecosystems Shelford, V.- Beetles, insects, animal eco G.E. Hutchinson- Stats in Ecology Whittaker- Temperature vs. Precipitation DefinitionsCHAPTER II- LAND SoilPlant growth, recycling nutrients, wastes, water supply/purification, engineering medium, habitat for organisms, etc Organic Layer A- Mineral layer (top soil, clay, iron, Al, Si, etc) E- Eluviation- Leaching B- Deposital horizon- illuviation- best soil structure C- Bedrock
Oi- Fibric horizon, SLIGHTLY decomposed Oe- Hemic horizon, 1/2 decomposed Oa- Sapric horizon, VERY decomposed Humus- Decomposing organic matter, retains water, plenty of nutrients Solum- True soil (O-->B) Regolith- O-->C Bioterbation- Transferring between layers CLORPT Climate Organism Relief (topographic) Parent material (geologic/organic precursors) Time Loam- Soil with sand and silt and clay particles Mineral constituents Sand- largest Silt- microsand, < 0.05 mm, > 0.002 mm Clay- < 0.002 mm Soil ordersAridosols- Deserts- leaching of cations proportional to solubility- limited activity Mollisols- Dark grasslands- chemical weathering from rainfall Alfisols- Acidic- Al and Fe- Semiarid --> humid areas. Clay subsoil Ultisols- Humid, Acidic- maximum mineral weathering Oxisols- Oxic horizon. < 10% base saturation. Tropical rain forests. Spodosols- Ashes. Wet and cold, or warm in florida. Vertisols- Swelling clays- High base cations Andisols- Volcanoic soil Inceptisols- Embryonic soils- Inception of B. No accumulations of Fe, Al, Clay, org. Histisols- Organic- Peat soils, acidic Entisols- Rocks, no profile development Climate- Weather/environment -Sun's energy, Ein = Eout -30% deflected, 70% absorbed as heat energy -Heat dissipation, reradiated at night, wind, evaporation Atmospheric CirculationCoriolis Effect- Cyclones in northern hemisphere spin counterclockwise, clockwise in southern hemisphere. Objects in motion in north deflected to the right. Temperature and moisture- Precipitation- supply, humidity- demand. Seasonal rainfall is more important than the average. Water vapor density- how much vapor in one area Saturation water vapor pressure- how much vapor can air hold Warm air- more moisture Temp and moisture are inseparableElevation, precipitation shadow (forest only on 1 side of mountain) Water temperature more important than total rainfall -Affects plant and animal distribution BiomesRainforest- Oxisols, andisols Savanna- Aridosols Temperate wood/shrubs- Inceptisols, Aridosols, Alfisols Temperate grasslands- Mollisols Temperate forest- Alfisols, Ultisols Boreal forests- Spodosols- Spodic horizon (Al and other organic material) Tundra- Histosols, entisols, inceptisols Desert- Aridosols MountainsS- slope- sunny, warm, dry
N- slope- dark, cool, wet Macroclimate correlates with distribution of species Microclimate- "patchy" dispersion of species CHAPTER III- AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Salinity- Increases from Freshwater to Estuarine to Marine Bodies of Water Salt Location Lakes* Oligohaline* Coastal intertidal* Streams* Mesohaline* Near shore Rivers* Polyhaline* Off shore *: May include wetlands Aquatic ecosystemsSaltwater- Oceans, reefs, shorelines, land-sea interface Freshwater-Lotic (flowing) or Lentic (standing) Differences between land and waterTemporal variations in temperature are lower in water High pressure gradients High light attenuation (diminished quality) Physical factors controlling plant dist. Aquatic environments are more stable Hydrologic cycle- land and air transmittance of H2O Oceans and seas- 71% earth is ocean -4 miles deep at maximum -avg depth at 4000 meters -low surface area/volume ratio -reduced sunlight, low productivity Oceanic zones- See book for figure 100 meters down, photosynthetic rate = respiratory rate. Disphotic. 600 m down, completely aphotic Marine snow- decomposing animals falling to the bottom of the sea GradientsThermocline- temperature Pynocline- pressure Salinity Upwelling- Rich in all growth- cold deep H2O with lots of nutrients, winds of current hitting land mass Coral reefs- 18-29 deg. C Kelp forests Intertidal zonation- Supratidal, upper intertidal, middle intertidal, lower intertidal, subtidal Based on degree of exposure to light. Supratidal exposed the most. Sun and moon cause tides Semidiurnal- 2x high tide, 2x low tide daily Wind + hurricane + high tide = flood Wind may amplify or diminish high tide Salt marsh channels, mangroves affected by tides Estuaries- Fresh and saltwater mix, variable currents, lots of O2 and light -nutrient rich, microniches, high faunal diversity 3% of world's water is FRESH -2.25% is ice, 0.75% is actual water StreamsOrders First order- ephemeral (not present year round) 2nd order- 2x first order 3rd order- 2x second order, etc Dimensions in which streams moveUnidirectionally, flooding horizontally, moving in and out of soil, time Allochthinus inputs- coming from outside of stream- coarse, particulate org. matter
Autochthonous- from system, within energy sources Water column, benthic zone (floor- benthos) Phreatophytes- treeds, groundwater Shredders- Coarse particulate organic matter eaters Collectors- Fine particulate organic matter eaterns PET TAXAPlecopterans- Stone flies. Cool temp, indicate good quality water Ephemopterans- Indicate same. Flies only live one day. Tricopterans- Caddis flies- indicate bad water Dipterans- true flies- indicate poor water quality Stream flow- unidirectional in mountains, fall lines, bidirectional in coastal plains Lentic ecosystems Mountain lake, Lake Drummond, only 2 natural lakes in VA Shore- littoral zone > limnetic zone > euphotic zone Neuston- dense surface water (water striders), surface tension Epineuston- very surface of water Hyponeuston- algae/protozoans just below surface Lake layers Epilimnion- top of lake water Metalimnion- middle, thermocline Hypolimnion- cold, little O2 Major lakes- Great lakes, Baikal, Tanganyika, Titicaca, Victoria Lake turnovers- Dimictic (2x a year), Polymictic (daily) -Summer and winter stratification, spring and fall are more even LakesOligotrophic- low temp, good O2, low nutrients Phosphorous and Nitrogen, phytoplankton, steep shoreline Mesotrophic- Middle- low O2, more nutrients, shallow Eutrophic- high temp, low O2, more nutrients, low volume WetlandsMarine- >30 ppt saltwater Estuarine- 0.5 ppt saltwater Riverine- in river channel Locustrine- >20 acres, >6 ft deep Palustrine- no body of water association Wetlands found nearly everywhere -link between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems -Different soils- hydric, redoximorphic (mineral) Criteria for wetlands -Vegetation adapted -Hydrophytic, 51% must be obligate, facultative wet, or facultative -Soils- Hydric within 12 inches of surface -Hydrology- wet/saturated for >12.5% of growing season Redoximorphic features- Oxidized rhizosphere- soil around roots High Fe concentration Gleyed- no color or iron Fresh/Marine/TidalBasin- topographic depressions- F, M Riverine, Riparian- Periodically flooded along streams- FMT Fringe- coastal areas of oceans/lakes- FMT Threats to wetlands- Drained, filled in, channeling, flooding, clearing vegetation ImportanceTrap sediments, absorb nutrients, filter water, flood control, natural resevoirs, Fish spawning/shellfish, high biodiversity, recreation CHAPTER 4- TEMPERATURE RELATIONS OverviewMost important factor affecting organism distribution
All chemical reactions temperature dependent Physiology depends on chem. reactions Messing with physiology affects distribution Tolerance extremes40-50 deg. C, upper limit for animals. Some below freezing while dormant Plants- 0-70 deg. C while active, a few can go below 0 dormant exceptions: Algae on hot springs, snow algae, thermophilic (40-90 deg C) Psychrophilic- -2 to 9 deg C High temperature results in protein denaturation Low temperature results in freezing, cell lysis, dehydration Diaheliotrophic- Flower that TRACKS SUN Paraheliotrophic- stays AWAY from sun's rays Thermal stability in waterHigh specific heat in water, lots of energy needed to change temperature Latent heat of vaporization- H2O absorbs heat as it evaporates Latent heat of fusion- heat given off when water freezes Microclimates- Desert shrubs- plants close to each other Under rocks, lower temp (snakes, lizards, etc) Acclimation- reversible change in morphology/physiology in an organism in response to environmental changes- is an adaptation Adaptation- evolutionary response at population level, changes in gene frequencies Heat from radiation- Hlight + Hradiation. Lost by radiation, evaporation Convection/Conduction (wind/touch) E in = E out! H metabolic + H radiation = H radiation + H evaporation +/- H convection +/- H conduction Thermal neutral zone- where resting metabolic rate is unchanging Stenothermal- narrow neutral zone, if temp exits zone, metabolism changes Humans are stenotherms, arctic foxes have the largest zone of tolerance to temp change without changing metabolism Poikilotherm- body temperature fluctuates Homeotherms- constant body temperature Ectotherms- body temp dependent on environment Endotherms- maintained internal temperature Endotherms Ectotherms Advantages Quickly generate heat Low energy cost Homeothermy No minimum body size Range of habitats Limited resource areas Disadv. High energy cost Behavior modulated temp regulation Lower limit to body size Exhausted rapidly Avoiding temp extremes: Behavior Physiological Migrate Thermal Windows Burrow Insulation Body orientation Shivering Nocturnal Evaporation Hibernation Torpor- reducing metabolic activity Aestivation- hibernation during heat Countercurrent exchange (bird's feet) Diapause- Resting stage before winter, for insects Plants- Dormancy, stomatal control, leaf size, prepubescence, solar tracking Skunk Cabbage- 20 deg C endotherm Hard to adapt to high temp, range of species limited by lowest temp in life cycle Figures:
Ch.1- 1-4, 6, 7 Ch.2- 3-8, 10-38 Ch.3- 2, 5, 6, 17, 20-26, 30, 34, 37-39 Ch.4- 3-5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 23-25, 28, 31 Figures, Graphs, etc. 1.6- Stream basin manipulation, influence of forest trees on nutrient budgets of northeastern forests Nutrient stream measured for level of nutrients 1.7- Different pollen in sediment layers 2.3- Seasons in north and south hemispheresNorth has winter as it tilts away from sun, south has summer as it tilts toward sun North has autumn as equator faces sun, south has spring North has summer as it faces sun, south has winter North has spring as equator faces sun, south has autumn 3.6- Ocean zones Intertidal Neritic Epipelagic (ocean surface) 200 m-1000 m depth- Mesopelagic zone 1000 m- 4000 m depth- Bathypelagic zone 4000 m- 6000 m depth- Abyssal zone 6000 m +- Hadal zone 3.24- Salt marsh cross section Highest tide Mean high spring tide Mean high neap tide Mean low tide -Many different depressions in a salt marsh. Secondary low marsh, creeks, salt pan, etc 3.34- Stream organismsHeadwater- cool, more O2 needing fish Medium- higher temp, less O2 Large- Most tolerant, feed on plankton 3.37- Lake structure Epilimnion at surface, warmed by sun Metalimnion- middle Hypolimnion- cool, dark, low O2 3.39- Oligotrophic and Eutrophic lakes Oligotrophic- Cool temp, high O2, low nutrients- P and N, low density of plankton Benthic- invertebrates needing high O2 at bottom. Steep shoreline, deep bottom, reduced heating in summer. Eutrophic- Warm temp, low O2, catfish. High nutrients, high density of plankton Benthic- dominated by species that tolerate +temp, low O2 Shallow bottom, reduces volume, increases heat in summer