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lecture20
Course: CIS 450, Spring 2008School: Kansas State
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CIS 450 Computer Architecture and Organization Lecture 20: Control Flow Mitch Neilsen (neilsen@ksu.edu) 219D Nichols Hall Topics Linking Example Library Interpositioning Control Flow Exceptions Process context switches Creating and destroying processes Case Study: Library Interpositioning Library interpositioning is a powerful linking technique that allows programmers to intercept calls to arbitrary functions...
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CIS 450 Computer Architecture and Organization Lecture 20: Control Flow Mitch Neilsen (neilsen@ksu.edu) 219D Nichols Hall Topics Linking Example Library Interpositioning Control Flow Exceptions Process context switches Creating and destroying processes Case Study: Library Interpositioning Library interpositioning is a powerful linking technique that allows programmers to intercept calls to arbitrary functions Interpositioning can occur at: compile time When the source code is compiled link time When the relocatable object files are linked to form an executable object file load/run time When an executable object file is loaded into memory, dynamically linked, and then executed. Some Interpositioning Applications Security Confinement (sandboxing) Interpose calls to libc functions. Behind the scenes encryption Automatically encrypt otherwise unencrypted network connections. Monitoring and Profiling Count number of calls to functions Characterize call sites and arguments to functions Malloc tracing Detecting memory leaks Generating malloc traces Example: malloc() Statistics Count how much memory is allocated by a function void *malloc(size_t size){ static void *(*fp)(size_t) = 0; void *mp; char *errorstr; /* Get a pointer to the real malloc() */ if (!fp) { fp = dlsym(RTLD_NEXT, "malloc"); if ((errorstr = dlerror()) != NULL) { fprintf(stderr, "%s(): %s\n", fname, errorstr); exit(1); } } /* Call the real malloc function */ mp = fp(size); mem_used += size; return mp; } Example: /pub/cis450/programs/malloc $ make $ make runc $ make runl ./helloc compile-time version ./hellol link-time version $ make runr (LD_PRELOAD="/usr/lib/libdl.so ./mymalloc.so" ./hellor) run-time version Control Flow Computers do Only One Thing From startup to shutdown, a CPU simply reads and executes (interprets) a sequence of instructions, one at a time. This sequence is the system's physical control flow (or flow of control). Physical control flow Time <startup> inst1 inst2 inst3 ... instn <shutdown> Altering the Control Flow Up to Now: two mechanisms for changing control flow: Jumps and branches Call and return using the stack discipline. Both react to changes in program state. Insufficient for a useful system Difficult for the CPU to react to changes in system state. Data arrives from a disk or a network adapter Instruction divides by zero User hits Ctrl-c at the keyboard System timer expires The system needs some additional mechanisms for "exceptional control flow" Exceptional Control Flow Mechanisms for exceptional control flow exists at all levels of a computer system. Low-level Mechanism Exceptions change in control flow in response to a system event (i.e., change in system state) Combination of hardware and OS software Higher-level Mechanisms Process context switch Signals Non-local jumps (setjmp/longjmp) Implemented by either: OS software (context switch and signals). C language runtime library: non-local jumps. System context for exceptions USB Ports Keyboard Keyboard Mouse Mouse Modem Modem Printer Printer Processor Processor Interrupt Interrupt controller controller Timer Timer Serial port Serial port controllers controllers Super I/O Chip Parallel port Parallel port controller controller Local/IO Bus Local/IO Bus Memory Memory IDE disk IDE disk controller controller SCSI SCSI controller controller SCSI bus SCSI bus Video Video adapter adapter Network Network adapter adapter disk disk CDROM Display Display Network Network Exceptions An exception is a transfer of control to the OS in response to some event (i.e., change in processor state) User Process OS event current next exception exception processing by <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> exception return (optional) Interrupt Vectors Exception numbers code for code for <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> 00 <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> interrupt vector 0 1 2 n-1 Each type of event has a unique exception number k Index into jump table (a.k.a., interrupt vector) Jump table entry k points to a function (<a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> ). Handler k is called each time exception k occurs. code for code for <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> 11 <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> code for code for <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> 22 <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> ... ... code for code for <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> n-1 <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> n-1 Asynchronous Exceptions (Interrupts) Caused by events external to the processor Indicated by setting the processor's interrupt pin Handler returns to the "next" instruction Examples: I/O interrupts hitting Ctrl-c at the keyboard arrival of a packet from the network arrival of a data sector from a disk Hard reset interrupt hitting the reset button Soft reset interrupt hitting Ctrl-alt-del on a PC Synchronous Exceptions Caused by events that occur as a result of executing an instruction: Traps Intentional Examples: system calls, breakpoint traps, special instructions Returns control to "next" instruction Faults Unintentional, but possibly recoverable Examples: page faults (recoverable), protection faults (unrecoverable), floating point exceptions Either re-executes faulting ("current") instruction or aborts Aborts Unintentional and unrecoverable Examples: parity error, machine check Aborts current program Precise vs. Imprecise Faults Precise Faults: the <a href="/keyword/exception-handler/" >exception handler</a> knows exactly which instruction caused the fault. All prior instructions have completed and no subsequent instructions have any effect. Imprecise Faults: the CPU was working on multiple instructions concurrently and an ambiguity may exists as to which instruction caused the fault. For example, multiple FP instructions were in the pipe and one caused an exception (Alpha Microprocessors). Trap Example Opening a File User calls open(filename, options) 0804d070 <__libc_open>: . . . 804d082: cd 80 804d084: 5b . . . int pop $0x80 %ebx Function open executes system call instruction int OS must find or create file, get it ready for reading or writing Returns integer file descriptor User Process OS int pop exception open file return Fault Example #1 Memory Reference User writes to memory location That portion (page) of user's memory is currently on disk 80483b7: c7 05 10 9d 04 08 0d movl int a[1000]; main () { a[500] = 13; } $0xd,0x8049d10 Page handler must load page into physical memory Returns to faulting instruction Successful on second try User Process OS event movl page fault return create page and load into memory Fault Example #2 Memory Reference User writes to memory location Address is not valid 80483b7: c7 05 60 e3 04 08 0d movl int a[1000]; main () { a[5000] = 13; } $0xd,0x804e360 Page handler detects invalid address Sends SIGSEG signal to user process User process exits with "segmentation fault" User Process OS event movl page fault Detect invalid address Signal process Processes Definition: A process is an instance of a running program. One of the most profound ideas in computer science. Not the same as "program" or "processor" Process provides each program with two key abstractions: Logical control flow Each program seems to have exclusive use of the CPU. Private address space Each program seems to have exclusive use of main memory. How are these illusions maintained? Process executions interleaved (multitasking) Address spaces managed by virtual memory system Logical Control Flows Each process has its own logical control flow Process A Time Process B Process C Concurrent Processes Two processes run concurrently (are concurrent) if their flows overlap in time. Otherwise, they are sequential. Examples: Concurrent: A & B, A & C Sequential: B & C Process A Time Process B Process C User View of Concurrent Processes Control flows for concurrent processes are physically disjoint in time. However, we can think of concurrent processes are running in parallel with each other. Process A Time Process B Process C Context Switching Processes are managed by a shared chunk of OS code called the kernel Important: the kernel is not a separate process, but rather runs as part of some user process Control flow passes from one process to another via a context switch. Process A code Process B code user code context switch Time kernel code user code kernel code user code context switch Private Address Spaces Each process has its own private address space. 0xffffffff kernel virtual memory (code, data, heap, stack) 0xc0000000 user stack (created at runtime) memory invisible to user code %esp (stack pointer) 0x40000000 memory mapped region for shared libraries run-time heap (managed by malloc) read/write segment (.data, .bss) read-only segment (.init, .text, .rodata) unused brk loaded from the executable file 0x08048000 0 Virtual Machines All current general purpose computers support multiple, concurrent user-level processes. Is it possible to run multiple kernels on the same machine? Yes: Virtual Machines (VM) were supported by IBM mainframes for over 30 years Intel's IA32 instruction set architecture is not virtualizable (neither are the Sparc, Mips, and PPC ISAs) With a lot of clever hacking, VmwareTM managed to virtualize the IA32 ISA in software User-mode Linux fork: Creating new processes int fork(void) creates a new process (child process) that is identical to the calling process (parent process) returns 0 to the child process returns child's pid to the parent process if (fork() == 0) { printf("hello from child\n"); } else { printf("hello from parent\n"); } Fork is interesting (and often confusing) because it is called once but returns twice Fork Example #1 Key Points Parent and child both run same code Distinguish parent from child by return value from fork Start with same state, but each has private copy Including shared output file descriptor Relative ordering of their print statements undefined void fork1() { int x = 1; pid_t pid = fork(); if (pid == 0) { printf("Child has x = %d\n", ++x); } else { printf("Parent has x = %d\n", --x); } printf("Bye from process %d with x = %d\n", getpid(), x); } Fork Example #2 Key Points Both parent and child can continue forking void fork2() { printf("L0\n"); fork(); printf("L1\n"); fork(); printf("Bye\n"); } L1 Bye Bye Bye Bye L0 L1 Fork Example #3 Key Points Both parent and child can continue forking void fork3() { printf("L0\n"); fork(); printf("L1\n"); fork(); printf("L2\n"); fork(); printf("Bye\n"); } L0 L2 Bye Bye Bye Bye Bye Bye Bye Bye L1 L2 L2 L1 L2 Fork Example #4 Key Points Both parent and child can continue forking void fork4() { printf("L0\n"); if (fork() != 0) { printf("L1\n"); if (fork() != 0) { printf("L2\n"); fork(); } } printf("Bye\n"); } Bye Bye Bye Bye L0 L1 L2 Fork Example #5 Key Points Both parent and child can continue forking void fork5() { printf("L0\n"); if (fork() == 0) { printf("L1\n"); if (fork() == 0) { printf("L2\n"); fork(); } } printf("Bye\n"); } Bye L2 L1 L0 Bye Bye Bye exit: Destroying Process void exit(int status) exits a process Normally return with status 0 atexit() registers functions to be executed upon exit void cleanup(void) { printf("cleaning up\n"); } void fork6() { atexit(cleanup); fork(); exit(0); } Zombies Idea When process terminates, still consumes system resources Various tables maintained by OS Called a "zombie" Living corpse, half alive and half dead Reaping Performed by parent on terminated child Parent is given exit status information Kernel discards process What if Parent Doesn't Reap? If any parent terminates without reaping a child, then child will be reaped by init process Only need explicit reaping for long-running processes E.g., shells and servers void fork7() { if (fork() == 0) { /* Child */ printf("Terminating Child, PID = %d\n", getpid()); exit(0); } else { printf("Running Parent, PID = %d\n", getpid()); linux> ./forks 7 & while (1) [1] 6639 ; /* Infinite loop */ Running Parent, PID = 6639 } Terminating Child, PID = 6640 } Zombie Example linux> ps PID TTY TIME 6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 6639 ttyp9 00:00:03 6640 ttyp9 00:00:00 6641 ttyp9 00:00:00 linux> kill 6639 [1] Terminated linux> ps PID TTY TIME 6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 6642 ttyp9 00:00:00 CMD tcsh forks forks <defunct> ps ps shows child process as "defunct" Killing parent allows child to be reaped CMD tcsh ps void fork8() { if (fork() == 0) { /* Child */ printf("Running Child, PID = %d\n", getpid()); while (1) ; /* Infinite loop */ } else { printf("Terminating Parent, PID = %d\n", getpid()); linux> ./forks 8 exit(0); } Terminating Parent, PID = 6675 } Running Child, PID = 6676 Nonterminating Child Example linux> ps PID TTY TIME 6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 6676 ttyp9 00:00:06 6677 ttyp9 00:00:00 linux> kill 6676 linux> ps PID TTY TIME 6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 6678 ttyp9 00:00:00 CMD tcsh forks ps Child process still active even though parent has terminated Must kill explicitly, or else will keep running indefinitely CMD tcsh ps wait: Synchronizing with children int wait(int *child_status) suspends current process until one of its children terminates return value is the pid of the child process that terminated if child_status != NULL, then the object it points to will be set to a status indicating why the child process terminated wait: Synchronizing with children void fork9() { int child_status; if (fork() == 0) { printf("HC: hello from child\n"); } else { printf("HP: hello from parent\n"); wait(&child_status); printf("CT: child has terminated\n"); } printf("Bye\n"); exit(); } HC Bye HP CT Bye wait() Example If multiple children completed, will take in arbitrary order Can use macros WIFEXITED and WEXITSTATUS to get information about exit status void fork10() { pid_t pid[N]; int i; int child_status; for (i = 0; i < N; i++) if ((pid[i] = fork()) == 0) exit(100+i); /* Child */ for (i = 0; i < N; i++) { pid_t wpid = wait(&child_status); if (WIFEXITED(child_status)) printf("Child %d terminated with exit status %d\n", wpid, WEXITSTATUS(child_status)); else printf("Child %d terminate abnormally\n", wpid); } } waitpid() waitpid(pid, &status, options) Can wait for specific process Various options void fork11() { pid_t pid[N]; int i; int child_status; for (i = 0; i < N; i++) if ((pid[i] = fork()) == 0) exit(100+i); /* Child */ for (i = 0; i < N; i++) { pid_t wpid = waitpid(pid[i], &child_status, 0); if (WIFEXITED(child_status)) printf("Child %d terminated with exit status %d\n", wpid, WEXITSTATUS(child_status)); else printf("Child %d terminated abnormally\n", wpid); } wait/waitpid Example Outputs Using wait (fork10) Child Child Child Child Child 3565 3564 3563 3562 3566 terminated terminated terminated terminated terminated with with with with with exit exit exit exit exit status status status status status 103 102 101 100 104 Using waitpid (fork11) Child Child Child Child Child 3568 3569 3570 3571 3572 terminated terminated terminated terminated terminated with with with with with exit exit exit exit exit status status status status status 100 101 102 103 104 exec: Running new programs int execl(char *path, char *arg0, char *arg1, ..., 0) loads and runs executable at path with args arg0, arg1, ... path is the complete path of an executable arg0 becomes the name of the process typically arg0 is either identical to path, or else it contains only the executable filename from path "real" arguments to the executable start with arg1, etc. list of args is terminated by a (char *)0 argument returns -1 if error, otherwise doesn't return! main() { if (fork() == 0) { execl("/usr/bin/cp", "cp", "foo", "bar", 0); exit(-1); } wait(NULL); printf("copy completed\n"); exit(0); } Summarizing Exceptions Events that require nonstandard control flow Generated externally (interrupts) or internally (traps and faults) Processes At any given time, system has multiple active processes Only one can execute at a time, though Each process appears to have total control of processor + private memory space Summarizing (cont.) Spawning Processes Call to fork One call, two returns Terminating Processes Call exit One call, no return Reaping Processes Call wait or waitpid Replacing Program Executed by Process Call execl (or variant) One call, (normally) no return
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