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Programming: C++ From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition Chapter 2: Basic Elements of C++ Objectives In this chapter you will: Become familiar with the basic components of a C++ program, including functions, special symbols, and identifiers Explore simple data types and examine the string data type Discover how to use arithmetic operators Objectives (continued) Examine how a program evaluates arithmetic expressions Become familiar with the string Type Learn what an assignment statement is and what it does Discover how to input data into memory using input statements Become familiar with the use of increment and decrement operators Objectives (continued) Examine ways to output results using output statements Learn how to use preprocessor directives and why they are necessary Explore how to properly structure a program, including using comments to document a program Learn how to write a C++ program Introduction Computer program: sequence of statements designed to accomplish some task Programming: planning/creating a program Syntax: rules that specify which statements (instructions) are legal Programming language: a set of rules, symbols, and special words Semantic rule: meaning of the instruction C++ Programs A C++ program is a collection of one or more subprograms, called functions A subprogram or a function is a collection of statements that, when activated (executed), accomplishes something Every C++ program has a function called main The smallest individual unit of a program written in any language is called a token Symbols Special symbols + * / . ; ? , <= != == >= Symbols (continued) Word symbols - Reserved words, or keywords - Include: int float double char void return Identifiers Consist of letters, digits, and the underscore character (_) Must begin with a letter or underscore C++ is case sensitive Some predefined identifiers are cout and cin Unlike reserved words, predefined identifiers may be redefined, but it is not a good idea Legal and Illegal Identifiers The following are legal identifiers in C++: - first - conversion - payRate Data Types Data Type: set of values together with a set of operations is called a data type C++ data can be classified into three categories: - Simple data type - Structured data type - Pointers Simple Data Types Three categories of simple data - Integral: integers (numbers without a decimal) - Floating-point: decimal numbers - Enumeration type: user-defined data type int Data Type Examples: -6728 0 78 Positive integers do not have to have a + sign in front of them No commas are used within an integer Commas are used for separating items in a list bool Data Type bool type - Has two values, true and false - Manipulate logical (Boolean) expressions true and false are called logical values bool, true, and false are reserved words char Data Type The smallest integral data type Used for characters: letters, digits, and special symbols Each character is enclosed in single quotes Some of the values belonging to char data type are: 'A', 'a', '0', '*', '+', '$', '&' A blank space is a character and is written ' ', with a space left between the single quotes Floating-Point Data Types C++ uses scientific notation to represent real numbers (floating-point notation) Floating-Point Data Types (continued) float: represents any real number - Range: -3.4E+38 to 3.4E+38 Memory allocated for the float type is 4 bytes double: represents any real number - Range: -1.7E+308 to 1.7E+308 Memory allocated for double type is 8 bytes On most newer compilers, data types double and long double are same Floating-Point Data Types (continued) Maximum number of significant digits (decimal places) for float values is 6 or 7 Float values are called single precision Maximum number of significant digits for double is 15 Double values are called double precision Precision: maximum number of significant digits Arithmetic Operators C++ Operators + addition subtraction * multiplication / division % remainder (mod operator) +, -, *, and / can be used with integral and floating- point data types Unary operator - has only one operand Binary Operator - has two operands Order of Precedence All operations inside of () are evaluated first *, /, and % are at the same level of precedence and are evaluated next + and have the same level of precedence and are evaluated last When operators are on the same level - Performed from left to right Expressions If all operands are integers - Expression is called an integral expression If all operands are floating-point - Expression is called a floating-point expression An integral expression yields integral result A floating-point expression yields a floatingpoint result Mixed Expressions Mixed expression: - Has operands of different data types - Contains integers and floating-point Examples of mixed expressions: 2 + 3.5 6 / 4 + 3.9 5.4 * 2 13.6 + 18 / 2 Evaluating Mixed Expressions If operator has same types of operands - Evaluated according to the type of the operands If operator has both types of operands - Integer is changed to floating-point - Operator is evaluated - Result is floating-point Evaluating Mixed Expressions (continued) Entire expression is evaluated according to precedence rules - Multiplication, division, and modulus are evaluated before addition and subtraction - Operators having same level of precedence are evaluated from left to right - Grouping is allowed for clarity Type Conversion (Casting) Implicit type coercion: when value of one type is automatically changed to another type Cast operator provides explicit type conversion Use the following form: - static_cast<dataTypeName>(expression) string Data Type Programmer-defined type supplied in standard library Sequence of zero or more characters Enclosed in double quotation marks Null: a string with no characters Each character has relative position in string Position of first character is 0, the position of the second is 1, and so on Length: number of characters in string Input Data must be loaded into main memory before it can be manipulated Storing data in memory is a two-step process: 1. Instruct the computer to allocate memory 2. Include statements to put data into allocated memory Allocating Memory Named Constant: memory location whose content can't change during execution The syntax to declare a named constant is: In C++, const is a reserved word Variable: memory location whose content may change during execution Assignment Statement The assignment statement takes the form: variable = expression; Expression is evaluated and its value is assigned to the variable on the left side In C++ = is called the assignment operator A C++ statement such as: i = i + 2; evaluates whatever is in i, adds two to it, and assigns the new value to the memory location i Declaring & Initializing Variables Variables can be initialized when declared: int first=13, second=10; char ch=' '; double x=12.6, y=123.456; first and second are int variables with the values 13 and 10, respectively ch is a char variable whose value is empty x and y are double variables with 12.6 and 123.456, respectively Input (Read) Statement cin is used with >> to gather input cin >> variable >> variable. . .; The extraction operator is >> For example, if miles is a double variable cin >> miles; - Causes computer to get a value of type double - Places it in the memory cell miles Input Statement (continued) Using more than one variable in cin allows more than one value to be read at a time For example, if feet and inches are variables of type int a statement such as: cin >> feet >> inches; - Inputs two integers from the keyboard - Places them in locations feet and inches respectively Example 2-17 #include <iostream> #include <string> using namespace std; int main() { string firstName; string lastName; int age; double weight; cout << "Enter first name, last name, age, " << "and weight, separated by spaces." << endl; cin >> firstName >> lastName; cin >> age >> weight; cout << "Name: " << firstName << " " << lastName << endl; cout << "Age: " << age << endl; cout << "Weight: " << weight << endl; return 0; } //Line //Line //Line //Line 1 2 3 4 //Line 5 //Line 6 //Line 7 //Line //Line //Line //Line 8 9 10 11 Sample Run: Enter first name, last name, age, and weight, separated by spaces. Sheila Mann 23 120.5 Name: Sheila Mann Age: 23 Weight: 120.5 Increment & Decrement Operators Increment operator: increment variable by 1 Decrement operator: decrement variable by 1 Pre-increment: ++variable Post-increment: variable++ Pre-decrement: --variable Post-decrement: variable-- Increment & Decrement Operators (continued) ++count; or count++; increments the value of count by 1 --count; or count--; decrements the value of count by If x = 5; and y = ++x; - After the second statement both x and y are 6 If x = 5; and y = x++; - After the second statement y is 5 and x is 6 Output The syntax of cout and << is: cout<< expression or manipulator << expression or manipulator << ...; Called an output (cout) statement The << operator is called the insertion operator or the stream insertion operator Expression evaluated and its value is printed at the current cursor position on the screen Output (continued) Manipulator: alters output endl: the simplest manipulator - Causes cursor to move to beginning of the next line Output Example Output of the C++ statement cout << a; is meaningful if a has a value For example, the sequence of C++ statements, a = 45; cout << a; produces an output of 45 The New Line Character The new line character is '\n' this Without character the output is printed on one line Tells the output to go to the next line When \n is encountered in a string - Cursor is positioned at the beginning of next line A \n may appear anywhere in the string Examples Without the new line character: cout << "Hello there."; cout << "My name is James."; - Would output: Hello there.My name is James. With the new line character: cout << "Hello there.\n"; cout << "My name is James."; - Would output Hello there. My name is James. Preprocessor Directives C++ has a small number of operations Many functions and symbols needed to run a C++ program are provided as collection of libraries Every library has a name and is referred to by a header file Preprocessor directives are commands supplied to the preprocessor All preprocessor commands begin with # No semicolon at the end of these commands Preprocessor Directive Syntax Syntax to include a header file #include <headerFileName> Causes the preprocessor to include the header file iostream in the program The syntax is: #include <iostream> Header Files In older versions of C++ - Header files had the file extension .h ANSI C++ removes this extension The descriptions of the functions needed to perform I/O are contained in iostream The syntax is: #include <iostream> Using cin and cout in a Program and namespace cin and cout are declared in the header file iostream, but within a namespace named std To use cin and cout in a program, use the following two statements: #include <iostream> using namespace std; Using the string Data Type in a Program To use the string type, you need to access its definition from the header file string Include the following preprocessor directive: #include <string> Creating a C++ Program C++ program has two parts: 1. Preprocessor directives 2. The program Preprocessor directives and program statements constitute C++ source code Source code must be saved in a file with the file extension .cpp Creating a C++ Program (continued) Compiler generates the object code - Saved in a file with file extension .obj Executable code is produced and saved in a file with the file extension .exe. Declaration Statements int a, b, c; double x, y; - Variables can be declared anywhere in the program, but they must be declared before they can be used Executable Statements have three forms: a = 4; //assignment statement cin >> b; //input statement cout << a << " " << b << endl; //output statement Example 2-28 #include <iostream> using namespace std; const int NUMBER = 12; int main() { int firstNum; int secondNum; firstNum = 18; cout << "Line 9: firstNum = " << firstNum << endl; cout << "Line 10: Enter an integer: "; cin >> secondNum; cout << endl; cout << "Line 13: secondNum = " << secondNum << endl; firstNum = firstNum + NUMBER + 2 * secondNum; cout << "Line 15: The new value of " << "firstNum = " << firstNum << endl; return 0; } //Line 1 //Line //Line //Line //Line //Line //Line //Line 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 //Line //Line //Line //Line 9 10 11 12 //Line 13 //Line 14 //Line 15 //Line 16 Sample Run: Line 9: firstNum = 18 Line 10: Enter an integer: 15 Line 13: secondNum = 15 Line 15: The new value of firstNum = 60 Program Style and Form The Program Part - Every C++ program has a function main - Basic parts of function main are: The heading The body of the function The heading part has the following form typeOfFunction main(argument list) Syntax Errors in syntax are found in compilation int x; int y double z; y = w + x; //Line //Line //Line //Line 1 2: syntax error 3 4: syntax error Use of Blanks Use of Blanks - One or more blanks separate input numbers - Blanks are also used to separate reserved words and identifiers from each other and other symbols Blanks between identifiers in the second statement are meaningless: int a,b,c; int a, b, c; In the statement: inta,b,c; no blank between the t and a changes the reserved word int and the identifier a into a new identifier, inta. Semicolons, Brackets, & Commas Commas separate items in a list All C++ statements end with a semicolon Semicolon is also called a statement terminator { and } are not C++ statements Semantics Possible to remove all syntax errors in a program and still not have it run Even if it runs, it may still not do what you meant it to do For example, 2 + 3 * 5 and (2 + 3) * 5 are both syntactically correct expressions, but have different meanings Form and Style Consider two ways of declaring variables: - Method 1 int feet, inch; double x, y; - Method 2 int a,b;double x,y; Both are correct, however, the second is hard to read Documentation Comments can be used to document code - Single line comments begin with // anywhere in the line - Multiple line comments are enclosed between /* and */ Name identifiers with meaningful names Run-together-words can be handled either by using CAPS for the beginning of each new word or an underscore before the new word Assignment Statements C++ has special assignment statements called compound assignment +=, -=, *=, /=, and %= Example: x *= y; Programming Example Write a program that takes as input a given length expressed in feet and inches - Convert and output the length in centimeters Input: Length in feet and inches Output: Equivalent length in centimeters Lengths are given in feet and inches Program computes the equivalent length in centimeters One inch is equal to 2.54 centimeters Programming Example (continued) Convert the length in feet and inches to all inches: - Multiply the number of feet by 12 - Add given inches Use the conversion formula (1 inch = 2.54 centimeters) to find the equivalent length in centimeters Programming Example (continued) The algorithm is as follows: - Get the length in feet and inches - Convert the length into total inches - Convert total inches into centimeters - Output centimeters Variables and Constants Variables int feet; //variable to hold given feet int inches; //variable to hold given inches int totalInches; //variable to hold total inches double centimeters; //variable to hold length in //centimeters Named Constant const double conversion = 2.54; const int inchesPerFoot = 12; Main Algorithm Prompt user for input Get data Echo the input (output the input) Find length in inches Output length in inches Convert length to centimeters Output length in centimeters Putting It Together Program begins with comments System resources will be used for I/O Use input statements to get data and output statements to print results Data comes from keyboard and the output will display on the screen The first statement of the program, after comments, is preprocessor directive to include header file iostream Putting It Together (continued) Two types of memory locations for data manipulation: - Named constants - Variables Named constants are usually put before main so they can be used throughout program This program has only one function (main), which will contain all the code The program needs variables to manipulate data, which are declared in main Body of the Function The body of the function main has the following form: int main () { declare variables statements return 0; } Writing a Complete Program Begin the program with comments for documentation Include header files Declare named constants, if any Write the definition of the function main //******************************************************** // Program Convert Measurements: This program converts // measurements in feet and inches into centimeters using // the formula that 1 inch is equal to 2.54 centimeters. //******************************************************** //header file #include <iostream> using namespace std; //named constants const double CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH = 2.54; const int INCHES_PER_FOOT = 12; int main () { //declare variables int feet, inches; int totalInches; double centimeter; //Statements: Step 1 - Step 7 cout << "Enter two integers, one for feet and " << "one for inches: "; //Step 1 cin >> feet >> inches; //Step 2 cout << endl; cout << endl; cout << "The numbers you entered are " << feet << " for feet and " << inches << " for inches. " << endl; //Step 3 totalInches = INCHES_PER_FOOT * feet + inches; //Step 4 cout << "The total number of inches = " << totalInches << endl; //Step 5 centimeter = CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH * totalInches;//Step 6 cout << "The number of centimeters = " << centimeter << endl; //Step 7 return 0; } Sample Run Enter two integers, one for feet, one for inches: 15 7 The numbers you entered are 15 for feet and 7 for inches. The total number of inches = 187 The number of centimeters = 474.98 Summary C++ program: collection of functions where each program has a function called main Identifier consists of letters, digits, and underscores, and begins with letter or underscore The arithmetic operators in C++ are addition (+), subtraction (-),multiplication (*), division (/), and modulus (%) Arithmetic expressions are evaluated using the precedence associativity rules Summary (continued) All operands in an integral expression are integers and all operands in a floating-point expression are decimal numbers Mixed expression: contains both integers and decimal numbers Use the cast operator to explicitly convert values from one data type to another A named constant is initialized when declared All variables must be declared before used Summary (continued) Use cin and stream extraction operator >> to input from the standard input device Use cout and stream insertion operator << to output to the standard output device Preprocessor commands are processed before the program goes through the compiler A file containing a C++ program usually ends with the extension .cpp

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