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Elections Presidential Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. Presidential nominations A. American primary system is unusual for its length and participatory nature Convention delegates pledged to particular candidates are chosen in primary elections and caucuses. Voters decide the nominee unlike in other countries, where they are chosen by due paying, card carrying parties. It is much more democratic. Regardless of your history, if you are a card carrying member of the democratic party, if you have given money to the democratic party, you can still vote. Primaries and caucuses are equivalent basically. A caucus however is more like a town meeting, a much more intensive process. It involves a lot more organization. Democratic Delegates: 1. There are 3,253 "pledged" delegates elected or chosen at the state level with the understanding they will support a particular candidate at the convention. 2. There are 796 "superdelegates." Usually Democratic members of Congress, governors, national committee members, or party leaders. All has to do with who you are. 3. Democrats use proportional representation to award pledged delegates. 4. Candidates must win at least 15% of the vote to win any pledged delegates. 5. Superdelegates can vote for whomever they please, so there is no official process to win their support. 6. A Democrat has to win 2,025 delegates to win the presidential nomination. Where things Stand: Republicans: 1. A Republican has to win 1,191 to delegates to win the presidential nomination 2. Individual state parties decide how pledged... B. Recent emergence of the primary system Grew out of the bitter Democratic nomination process of 1968 1. Divisive Democratic nomination process in 1968 It was a disaster. Party elites controlled everything. Happened during Vietnam War and had to with anti-war protests. Occurred in Chicago and ended up with police beating on protesters in the street. It convinced the party that it had to change its ways. 2. McGovern-Fraser Commission: This transformed the way the nominee was chosen. They wanted to process to look more democratic. It made primaries binding. Before this nominees were chosen only by the party elites. Republicans were already thinking about these same types of reforms. A. Alters Democrats' nominating process B. Delegates chosen in primaries C. Women, younger members, minorities D. Power shifts from elites to voters C. Emphasis on early primaries, attempts to build momentum II. Pros and cons of the nominating process A. More democratic and participatory Voters have much stronger say in who the nominee becomes B. Achieves four other desirable objectives 1. Leads to informed voters The process goes on for such a long time because you really get to know a lot about the candidates. 2. Produces qualified nominees Whoever survives this demanding, rigorous process, will certainly have the basic qualifications to serve as a president. 3. Sets the stage for a consensus-building campaign Voters can demand that candidate talk about certain issues that are important. 4. Contributes to effective presidential leadership By battle testing these candidates. C. General criticisms 1. Process starts too early and lasts too long Example of permanent campaign. People only watched if they were interested. The audience is a lot smaller than say people who watch American Idol. 2. Long campaigns make nominees seem like damaged goods If you have 2.5 years to hammer on the candidates by the time you get to the actual election, the candidates seem flawed. You learn everything about these individuals during this time span. D. Does the process give too much power to the party activists? It's a result of who actually votes. Relatively few voters participate. Party activists are not representative of the general population. Activists tend to hold extreme views. 1. Average primary election turnout is very low Only 13% of people of the general population vote. 2. Party activists are more extreme than the general population Their views don't match the views to the average American citizen. They are more extreme and intense because the average Republican who participates in a primary election is more conservative than your average Republican in the US in general. Candidates have this pressure to look good to the extremes and then once the general election comes around to appeal more to the moderate population. E. Does the process give too much power to the media? 1. Horserace mentality of media coverage: focus is on who is winning and losing (not on "the issues"). Media coverage has shifted from a "policy" frame to a "game" frame. It should be more of if Obama wins, what does that mean for the economy or the war in Iraq. 2. Excessive/Disproportionate coverage of Iowa and New Hampshire They are the first ones to vote in primary so you get coverage of every church pancake fundraiser. Iowa and New Hampshire are much more homogenous and rural than more other states and don't represent the general US very well. 3. Media coverage is interpretive, not descriptive Like Hilary was supposed to do this but it didn't work out, so does this mean trouble for her campaign. Critics think the public should look at the facts and decide for themselves. III. General election A. Increasing importance of soft money Contributions given by interest groups, labor unions, and individual donors that is not subject to regulation by the federal government. Before soft money you had public money which was subject to federal regulation. The way to get around this was by soft money, which became more common in 1990s than public money. So a lot more of soft money was being spent than all other types. This was outlawed in 2002. Most campaign spending goes for television advertisements but the media is less powerful during the general election why? Because... B. Media coverage is less influential 1. Party identification plays a strong role even if you don't know anything about the particular candidates you can decide by your own party affiliations who you are going to support. If you are a republican, you will be most likely to vote for republican nominee. 2. Many voters make up their minds very early The campaign runs for so long that you make up your mind relatively early. C. Electoral College Compromise at Constitutional Convention between large states and small states. Number of electors per state is based on the total number of senators and representatives (advantage for large states). No majority? Election goes to the House of Representatives (advantage for small states; each state has a single vote). The winder of a state receives all the electoral votes for that state. Candidates often win by bigger electoral margins than their popular pluralities. Affects campaign strategy: Voters in states like Texas feel like they get ignored because everyone knows that Texas usually votes for the Republican. 1. Campaign strategy focuses on electoral votes, not the popular vote 2. Calls for reform in the aftermath of the 2000 election Did the 2000 election prove that this system is obsolete? Key Terms Primary election McGovern-Fraser Commission Horserace mentality Soft money Electoral College The President in Office Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. Presidential constituencies Have to have a delicate balancing act between national and party constituencies. They have to keep the support of the people who work on their campaigns and the whole nation. A. National constituency: the president is the only official elected by the entire nation. B. Party constituency: presidents need to keep the support of the people who work in and finance their campaigns. II. Presidential powers and congressional checks A. Commander-in-chief The president serves as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Congressional check: only Congress can declare war. B. Sign treaties The president can sign treaties with foreign powers. Congressional check: Senate ratification 2/3 have to vote for it. There are ways around this for the president, such as Executive agreement. C. Power to inform and to persuade The president shall "from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union." 1. No real congressional check 2. State of the Union address Given before joining session of Congress around February. This didn't exist until 1913 because before then presidents weren't supposed to say much in public. 3. This power is used much more publicly than it used to be Earlier there was this unwritten rule that the president wouldn't say much in public. 4. Various outreach offices have been added to the office of the presidency like office of communications, political affairs. The goal is to keep tabs on the campaign. 5. Presidency as a "bully pulpit" The president is like a preacher and the US is like the congregation. The job of the president is to inspire Americans. It is called a "going public" policy when you can't get what you want from people around you in office. C. Veto power President has the ability to prevent bills passed by Congress from becoming law. 1. Enables a president to reject legislation that Congress has passed 2. Congressional check: the veto override 3. President now use the veto more often Rarely used in early history. 4. Veto can also be a bargaining chip 5. The pocket veto Stops bills passed at the end of a session. Just by failing to sign it. D. Appointment power The president appoints thousands of public officials to high positions within their administration. 1. Congressional check: "advice and consent" of the Senate 2. Presidential staff has expanded over time. Key factor: Brownlow Commission and the growth of the White House staff ("The president needs help.") Beginning in early 20th century the federal gov. was getting involved in many areas that it hadn't before. In 1936 Brownlow Commission was formed which was a board of political experts who were asked to review the executive branch and determine if it was working effectively. Conclusion was the president needs help. So over time presidential staff has grown so now the president does have help. E. Power to recommend The president can recommend to Congress for "their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient." 1. Presidential power to propose legislation and to set the political agenda 2. Congressional check: only Congress may enact measures into law 3. Presidents are most likely to be successful during their honeymoon period members of Congress are more differential and are willing to see the new blood, everyone is willing to be more cooperative. F. Inherent executive power 1. "The executive power shall be vested in a President" Presidents read into it additional rights and responsibilities which might not be in the Constitution itself. So even though things aren't mentioned explicitly in the Constitution the President still has power to do things. There is disagreement over what this phrase means. 2. Increasing use of executive orders: directives that carry the weight of law although they were not enacted by Congress 3. No specific congressional check there is enough uncertainty about what this phrase means that presidents have to be careful in using this inherent authority, especially since Congress can impeach the president. G. General congressional check: impeachment III. Presidential reputations: Two components This distinction has become quite clouded in the permanent campaign. Presidential popularity can affect your professional reputation, especially since the poll goes on once a week. A. Professional reputation Reputation among Beltway insiders. Beltway refers to highway that loops around DC so these insiders are a shorthand for all the people involved in government. So a president who is able to get what he wants in Congress is seen has powerful, a very strong professional reputation. B. Presidential popularity Quite easy to measure. Ask Americans once a week "How well do you think the president is doing?" Key Terms Power to persuade State of the Union address Pocket veto Honeymoon period Brownlow Commission Executive order Bureaucratic Politics Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. Purposes and problems of a bureaucracy Federal bureaucracy: It is large and has grown over time. 14 departments directed by cabinet secretaries. 63 independent agencies headed by administrators, boards, or commissions. 27 government corporations directed by boards or commissions. A. Bureaucratic tasks: implementation: development of tasks and procedures to carry out legislative policies, regulation: development of formal rules for implementing legislation, and adjudication: decision-making as to whether an individual or organization has complied with or violated a law or regulation. B. Problems 1. Bureaucracies are given difficult if not impossible tasks 2. It is difficult to measure bureaucratic performance ex. TAKS test: how well are our kids prepared for the world? How do we measure environment protection? 3. Bureaucracies tend to have expansionary tendencies 4. Bureaucracies change slowly if at all They're supposed to treat people equally but downside is if you are very rigid and rule-bound, it is very difficult to change. II. History, patronage, and civil service reform A. American bureaucracies share a dubious ancestry American Revolution was fought against the bureaucrats of King George, so when Constitution was begin written, one thing that was very difficult was deciding where to put the federal bureaucracy. It was decided to be put in little swamp land known as Washington DC. Bureaucrats also lack a noble heritage, unlike in Europe where bureaucrats are higher up people. B. American bureaucracies were built on the spoils system A president who winds election has the right to appoint its supporters or bureaucrats. 1. Andrew Jackson: "To the victor go the spoils" You get your job not on the basis of your education or prestige but on party loyalty. 2. Appointment based on political connections rather than qualifications C. Civil service reform took place from the bottom up, not from the top down Jobs awarded based on merit/qualifications. Initially you had people required that were typists or swept the floors. Gradually, more and more people up the line have had these requirements imposed on them. This means that we still have patronage in the US, but it is very high patronage. 1. Pendleton Act (1883) Created a Civil Service Commission. It established qualifications needed to become a bureaucrat. It made system one that was driven by merit rather than political connections. 2. Requirements were first applied to lower-level, less-skilled jobs D. High-level political patronage still exists today Political appointees dominate upper levels. They may lack experience in government. Advantages of high-level patronage Newcomers may have innovative ideas. Limits resistance to presidential initiatives. Disadvantages of high-level patronage Complicates coordination of government. High turnover limits institutional memory. III. Congress, elections, and the bureaucracy Relationship between Congress and President. A. Strong congressional influence 1. Nominations (who gets to be a part of the bureaucracy) the Senate approves many appointees. Senatorial courtesy: An informal rule that the Senate will not confirm nominees for positions within a state unless they have the approval of the senior senator of the state form the president's party. Say president wants to appoint attorney from Texas, so this must be approved by Senior Senator of Texas (Hutchinson) 2. Budgetary control and earmarking This is another way how Congress exercises influence. Earmark: (a way to guarantee that the money is spent in a certain way) a specific designation of how money is to be spent, sometimes specifying a congressional district in which the activity must take place (it is on the rise) 3. Legislative oversight - Dramatic increase in oversight hearings. Committees hold hearings to make sure agencies are doing what they should be. To make sure everything is running effectively. 4. Iron triangles An iron triangle is a close and stable connection among agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees. Interest groups proved pressure and votes to committees who provide appropriations (money) and authority to bureaucracies who provide benefits to the interest groups (writing new rules and such). So for an insider it is very hard to break in. 5. Issue networks They are loose, competitive relationships among policy experts, interest groups, congressional committees, and federal agencies. It is easy for citizens to influence government. Easier for an outsider to get in. Opposite of iron triangle. Many observes argue that issue networks have replaces iron triangles. Permanent campaign: government is much more in touch with the people than it has ever been. B. Elections and the federal bureaucracy Key Terms Spoils system Pendleton Act (1883) Senatorial courtesy Earmark Iron triangle Issue network Congressional Elections Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. The constitutional framework A. House elections are held every two years All 435 members are up for election. They are elected popularly, by the people. Founders thought the House is going to be the branch of government that is most responsive to the people, to the public. B. Senate elections 1. Term of office set at six years This was to isolate them from the public mood. Not all of them are up for reelection. Only 1/3 of the Senate is up for reelection every two years. This was meant to give some continuity and isolation from the passions of the moment. It's like a stable counterweight against the House. 2. Initially chosen by state legislatures Not until 1913 did the 17th Amendment change this so that voters could have a right to choose people of the Senate. 3. Seventeenth Amendment shifts to popular election II. House elections A. Low visibility this makes party identification crucial. Name recognition is very low. So the easiest shortcut is partisanship, are the republican or democrat? B. Party affiliation is crucial, though its importance has declined fewer voters are loyal to a party. Party loyalists identify less strongly. More voters are "up for grabs." They are convincible. Legislators have adjusted their behavior. So far more voters in the 1950s were more loyal to their political parties. So you have to give them a personal reason to support you. Results in: 1. Increased ticket splitting voters are willing to vote for the nominees of two different parties on the same ballot. Nice illustration of voter disloyalty. People who vote for the person and not the party. It meant that house elections and presidential elections were more distinct. 2. Divided government occurs more frequently no one party is in complete control of Congress and the presidency. Ex. Right now we have a republican president and a democratic Congress. C. Sources of the incumbency advantage It is the electoral advantage a candidate enjoys by virtue of being an incumbent (already being in Congress), over and above his or her personal and political characterizes. So being a member has a payoff in being elected. Jacobson is against this because once a member is in, the elections to stay in are much easier. This concept can be measured in two ways: Sophomore surge: average gain in the percentage of the vote between the member's first and second elections. Overtime is has increased. Retirement slump: average falloff in the vote percentage won by the candidate of the retiring incumbent's party. It is much higher now than it has in the past, suggesting that incumbents have more of an advantage nowadays. Why do they have this advantage? 1. Franking privilege name given to representatives' and senators' free use of the US mail for sending communications to constituents. There is an increase in even years than odd years because those are election years. 2. Constituency service performed by personal staff More personal staff, including permanent district offices. Staffers do many things but one is constituency service: The totality of Congress members' district service and constituent assistance (casework) work. They devout so much to this service because of electoral payoff. You can grow support from your district. 3. Permanent district offices 4. Financial advantage widening gap between incumbent spending and challenger spending. It's easier for an incumbent to spend money on reelection campaign. It has been growing over time. Most scholars agree that spending on an election, the less bang for the buck you get. Only first are effective, but by the time you are up to .2 million, these aren't making a difference. Some are so secure that they don't spend much money. 5. Name recognition and visibility it's more likely that a person going into a ballet box will see a name, recognize it, and vote for it. That's why there is an advantage to being an incumbent. III. Senate elections A. Higher turnover/smaller incumbency advantage in the Senate than in the House B. Reasons for higher turnover 1. More heterogeneous constituency States are (usually) diverse; house districts (usually) are homogeneous. Each Senator represents an entire State. House districts may come from an urban area that always sends a democrat or from a rural are or from an older district. So individual district, it's republican territory and no way democrat. 2. Less control over information, more media attention than house members media exposure may portray a senator negatively. Because of franking privilege, house members can sort of control what the people see. Senate winds up in the news probably because they are involved in some controversial issue like the bathroom signal thing. 3. Stronger challengers Smaller funding gap and name recognition gap. Often it is one who has won election previously. Challenger brings a lot to the table. Over 6 years, they are only 2 Senate elections in Texas. So more competition. 4. Higher ambitions Winning the presidency requires taking a stand on controversial issues. Most Senators see themselves as the next president. But if you want to be president, you can't just sit there. You have to take positions on controversial topics, and when they do they are gong to upset some people. Key Terms Ticket splitting Divided government Open seat Incumbency advantage Sophomore surge Retirement slump Franking privilege Casework The Term Limits Controversy Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. Congressional term limits constitutional or statutory limitations on the number of terms that a legislator can serve. A. Incumbents are generally successful in winning reelection They like rewinning election. They are exhilarated at being able to make decisions for the US. So they want to keep their job and usually it's not too hard to do so. B. Members of Congress stay in office for relatively long periods of time They treat it like a career. Once they're there they to plan stay. C. Legislative politicization is one outgrowth of careerism in Congress If they lose the election, they lose their job. Legislators are more likely to place electoral concerns atop their list of priorities, and incumbents are more likely to run for (and win) reelection. Electoral objectives are sometimes pursued at the expense of policymaking. A member of Congress things about election first and foremost which can effect what they actually do in Congress. Sometimes electoral concerns are too important and they affect the way policies get made, so that they make it harder for the minority candidates. "Look at these hard/cold rebulcians who voted against the poor and healthcare....vote for me instead." D. The term limit debate was particularly heated during the 1990s 1. Part of the Republican "Contract with America" in 1994 - They would limit House to 2 terms and Senate to 6 years. However, they weren't able to get a majority. 2. U.S. Term Limits v. Thornton (1995) ruled term limits unconstitutional, meaning that term limits on Congress would have to be enacted as a constitutional amendment because you can't overrule what the Constitution says. II. Term limits in the states State legislators today are more likely to identify themselves as full-time politicians. Why? Rising levels of compensation. Increasing demands on their time. Personal staffs help reelection bids. A. The term limits movement has been more successful at the state level B. Careerism is one outgrowth of the revitalization of state legislatures C. Differences across states in term limit policies Term limits are constitutional or statutory limitations on the number of terms that a legislator can serve. At the state level they vary along two main dimensions: 1. Number of years of continuous service allowed 2. Lifetime ban on subsequent service 6 years and your out or 6 years and you have to take a break but then you can come back. Not every state has term limits. Texas doesn't. D. Link between term limits and direct democracy The first term limit restrictions were approved by voters in California, Colorado, and Oklahoma in 1990. Voters in eleven states followed suit in 1992. The spread of term limits is closely linked to direct democracy (the initiative process). E. Effects of term limits A few preliminary claims about the state-level impact of term limits: 1. Limited impact on the composition of state legislatures doesn't effect race. 2. Less institutional loyalty among members some people feel very strongly that they are quite loyal to that House, but term limits means that they don't have the incentive or opportunity to develop that loyalty. 3. Evaporation of norm of apprenticeship this is because no one sticks around that long, so you don't have these senior senators able to teach the younger ones the ropes. 3. No effect on the careerist impulse III. Arguments for and against term limits A. Wide and consistent public support for term limits 1)Long term representatives lose touch with their constituents. 2) Term Limits would increase electoral competition (open seats are the most competitive). 3) Term limits will bring people with new, innovative ideas into the system. B. Arguments for term limits 1. Isolation of professional legislators from ordinary citizens 2. Increased competition in the electoral system C. Arguments against term limits 1. Impinge on voters' freedom of choice 2. Term limits remove experienced and effective legislators it may take people out of office who are just beginning to learn what is really important, knowledge that we would want them to have. Value of experience during the legislative process 3. Legislatures potentially dominated by staff and lobbyists Term limits make legislatures more dependent on lobbyists and bureaucrats. This would be problematic because lobbyists and bureaucrats are not subject to election, and this is where legislatures would be going to find info on policy issues. Key Terms Term limits U.S. Term Limits v. Thornton (1995) Policymaking in Congress Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. Negative perceptions of Congress A. Fenno's paradox American citizens rate their own member of Congress far more favorably than they rate Congress as a whole. Americans distrust Congress as a whole. Americans reelect more than 90% of the incumbents who run for reelection. "Members run for Congress by running against Congress." 1. A minority of Americans trust Congress to do what is right 2. Most incumbent members of Congress are reelected B. Sources of Fenno's paradox The collective Congress and individual members are judged by different standards. Americans judge their members favorably if they do the very things that make the collective Congress perform poorly. Such as, you might see waist in money spend in Oklahoma but money spend in Austin, you might see is a very good idea. 1. Geography Members of Congress represent a specific district, not a political party. Some are homogenous, others are diverse. So if a policy affects districts in a different way, they you get this paradox. 2. Careerism Members of Congress consider this as their full time job, so if they lose an election they are losing their job, so they are going to do whatever it takes to keep their job, and it is only the residents of Texas that will vote for the Senator of Texas. II. How representative is Congress? A. The relationship between legislators and constituents How should a member of Congress review this responsibility? 1. "Delegate" perspective Legislators are expected to represent the views of their constituents even when holding a divergent opinion. 2. "Trustee" perspective Legislators are expected to vote independently, based on their judgment of the circumstances. It gives a little bit more leeway for a member of Congress. Legislators can use their own experience and judgment to vote against what their constituents want them to do. So elected officials and government officials should use their knowledge and judgment to make decisions about what is the best policy to pursuer even if this goes against what the majority of the public wants. B. Gender, racial, and ethnic diversity Congress does not mirror the diversity of the population as a whole. It's mostly made up of white professional males. 1. Descriptive representation Must Congress "look like America" to be a representative body? Do women and minority members have important symbolic value? Does diversity enhance legitimacy? Decisions might seem more legitimate if all walks of life are involved in those decisions. Is race and gender irrelevant as long as a member responds to his/her constituents? I just want someone to reflect my views, so I don't care if they look like me. 2. Women: underrepresented, but change is to be expected 3. Minority representation and majority-minority districts A racial or ethnic minority constitutes a majority of the voting population. Grows out of bloc voting. Bloc voting means that members of one race all vote for a given candidate, and members of another race vote for the other candidate. So the only way to get an African American representative is to have an African American majority. So you would want to draw a district so that it ahs 2/3 of that minority. General rule of thumb: 65%. Most minority members of Congress come from these types of districts. Very small number of minority members come from districts with a white majority. Pose dilemma for Democrats, racial liberals. Most minorities are democrats. III. Making public policy in Congress A. Differences between the House and the Senate 1. Senate elections are more visible 2. Senate incumbents are more vulnerable 3. Senate committees are weaker The house since it has 400 or so members, it has a hierarchical structure, and they are able to be kept in line. The heavy lifting in the House is done on a committee basis. Senate is more free, more ambitious. So in the Senate, much of the heavy lifting is done as a whole. 4. Senate procedure includes the filibuster Unlimited debate until a cloture vote. Has been more common. 5. Parties are weaker in the Senate B. How a bill becomes a law Key Terms Fenno's paradox Delegate view Trustee view Majority-minority districts Filibuster Multiple referrals: occur when party leaders give more than one committee responsibility for considering a bill. It really slows the process down. It causes bills to stall or even to die. They exploded in number quite recently. Conference committee: group of representatives from both the House and the Senate who iron out the differences between the two chambers' versions of a bill of resolution. They have to agree/compromise. They then send it to the president who can either sign it or veto it. This can also really slow down the legislative process. Multiple referrals and conference committee are hurtles for the legislator. This is where some of the complaints from people come from about the legislature. Sophomore surge is a way of measuring the incumbency advantage. It is the average gain in the percentage of the vote between a member of Congress's fist and second elections. It increased during the 1960s and 1970s and has stayed at this higher level since that time. The Media Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. Media biases Mass media: means of communication that are technologically capable of reaching most people and are economically affordable to most people. It constantly resets the relation ship between the media and the public. Print media: newspapers and magazines. Is the media bias? A. Problem of ideological bias is probably overstated 1. Forces for a liberal tilt Reporters tend to be more liberal, such on issues of abortion or school prayer. No evidence that this affects their reporting. Most of the unbiased assessment does struggle to find empirical evidence that there is a liberal bias in media. 2. Forces for a conservative tilt Republicans receive more endorsements. Media outlets depend on corporate ads. In 1930, only two democrat nominees received more endorsements than republicans. The media are businesses who need to make money, and they make money by advertising revenue, which looks to big corporations. - The problem of ideological bias is probably overstated: It is more difficult for one set of views to dominate because more media outlets exist. There are all different sources of newspapers, TV channels, and internet sites. Most people tend to rely on media sources with whom they agree politically. So media doesn't change minds, its more apt to reinforce what your political views. B. Selection bias Certain types of stories are selected to be covered. The stories are more likely to be covered than other stories are. 1. Negativity bias media has gone from a "lapdog" to a "watchdog" to a "junkyard dog." If a program is ineffective or corrupt, it is news. Black eyed peas know about this negativity bias. 2. Definition of what is "newsworthy" persistent conditions and gradual developments do not lend themselves to media coverage. A dramatic event makes for a better news story than does gradual development or consistent conditions. II. Media sources You can ignore or consume any media source you want. A. Television is the public's principal source of information Televison took over newspapers. People also say this it the most believable, more creditable source of information. B. Reliance on different kinds of media varies with the focus of attention During presidential campaigns, people depend on the television. Once you move down to state politics, television's edge falls. Once you get to local politics, most Americans chose to rely on newspapers. C. Potential impact of the Internet: narrowcasting We are in a transition period: internet might take over television. Narrowcasting many internet sites target a very specific audience. If you are running a cable tv station, you are more likely to zero in on one type of audience, such as young people. In the past, it has always been "broadcasting" trying to reach the widest audience possible. III. Trends in the newspaper industry The number of daily newspapers in the US fell during the 1990s. Two trends: A. Merger and concentration Two or more newspapers are combined into one, so you have a monopoly on perspective. There is also a potential for bias. Concentration: a dozen large corporations own most daily papers in the country. You lose local context. B. Recent trends in Texas All major cities have one newspaper each. Concentration: Fewer newspapers are locally-owned. IV. Media effects A. The minimal effects thesis Media has little impact on public opinion. People ignore information with which they disagree. People absorb information with which they agree. Initial finding of research on media effects. People always thought that media was able to change people's opinions. B. Subtle effects Recent media research has found evidence of three subtle effects: 1. Agenda setting media affect the issues and problems that people think about. The media doesn't affect what people think, but the media does affect what people think about. What are the important issues of the day? Sometimes called the CNN effect: if you see heartbreaking images, all of a sudden this issues becomes increasingly important to you even if you don't know much about it. 2. Priming media affect the standards that people use to evaluate political figures or the severity of a problem. If the media did nothing but run stories nonstop about the economy, chances are if you were asked to evaluate if Bush was doing a good job, you would have the economy in the back of your mind. 3. Framing media induce people to think about an issue from one standpoint rather than others. Example: abortion from the fetus standpoint or from the mother's reproductive choices standpoint. Key Terms Negativity bias Newsworthiness bias Narrowcasting Minimal effects thesis Priming Interest Groups Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. Why do people join groups? A. United States as a "nation of joiners" B. The free rider problem It occurs when people can enjoy the benefits of group activity without bearing any of the costs. You don't have to pay membership to an environmental agency to enjoy the cleaner air that comes about if the agency exceeds. 1. Especially severe for large groups 2. Especially severe when benefits are very broad such as fighting terrorism, world peace, cleaner air, cleaner water. It's very hard to see your own impact on that organization. 3. Distinction between public and private goods You can enjoy a public good even if you did not contribute to achieving it, and your enjoyment of the public good does not prevent others from enjoying it as well. In order to enjoy a private good you must pay a cost. If you consume it then others cannot. Private good, such as a governmental contract. Once you get the contract and pass all the hurdles, only you can enjoy it. C. Overcoming the free rider problem 1. Easier to organize a small group easier to overcome free rider problem because it is easier to impart participation pressure or guilt trips. This happened in the airline industry in US after Sept. 11. There aren't that many airliners in American so it was easier to get government stuff because they are such a small group than say the hotel industry. 2. Coercion 3. Selective benefits side benefits of belonging to an organization that are limited to contributing members of the organization. Such as the free pizza if you belong to an organization. Another example is AARP. Once you turn 50 you get an invitation to join. If you pay $15 for membership, you get access to mail-order pharmacy, low cost insurance, air far to hotels, and so on. 4. Patron or political entrepreneur Patron is someone who believes so strongly in the cause that they will pay the cost so that others can free ride. D. Incentives to join a group What do people join groups? People are only willing to pay costs because of incentives. 1. Solidary incentives Social incentive. People join because they want to associate with a certain type of people. 2. Material incentives People can join because they want to get economic benefits. 3. Purposive incentives People join to rach political goals, such as gun control. II. Interest group activities A. Direct lobbying (e.g. meeting with elected officials, drafting legislation) B. Grassroots (indirect) lobbying attempts to activate elected officials' constituents. More common due to technological shifts and the perception that government is more open. Done at the local level. The group contacts its members who then contact local officials...that's why it is indirect. The public opinion also matters more than it has in the past. C. Persuading the public ("issue advocacy") Corporations sometimes buy ads in newspapers where they will state their case. There is also direct mail, where an interest groups sends out mail that says, "Something terrible is going to happen unless you join our organization and pay $25." D. Direct action (e.g. sit-ins, demonstrations, Whiskey Rebellion, Civil Rights Movement) E. Litigation interest groups sometimes work their way through the legislative system. F. Electioneering and political action committees (PACs) Attempts to affect who is elected to office. Political action committees (PACs): specialized organizations for raising campaign funds. They can represent social, even corporate interests. More important as campaign costs increase. III. Interest groups and democracy First amendment guarantees the organization and maintenance of interest groups. They have been able to activate groups that have not always been involved in politics. And if groups are systematically isolated, it is problematic. A. Criticisms "The interest group choir sings with a strong upper class accent:" Individuals who have high status are more likely to have their voices heard because they are well represented by interest groups. 1. Are interest groups unrepresentative? 2. Do interest groups reinforce extremism and undercut compromise? They also see as their reason for existence to maximize benefits for their group. They don't have allegance. B. The ability to form interest groups is embedded in the First Amendment Key Terms Free rider problem Public good Selective benefit Purposive incentive Grassroots lobbying The Advocacy Explosion Government 310L Professor Andrew Karch I. The advocacy explosion The most recent wave of interest groups was in 1960-1980. It dramatically increased the number of interest groups involved in politics, and also increased the diversity of the interest groups active in politics. A. Public interest groups Generally liberal. Represent women, minorities, consumers, environment, etc. Inspired by civil rights movement, Vietnam (anti-war movement). These left many people mistrusting the government. If people bonded together they could change things. If they couldn't change it from the inside, they tried from the outside. Patron: Ford Foundation helped organization overcome free-rider problem. Examples: Common Cause (good government) argues for changing the congressional system, Public Citizen headed by Ralph Nader. B. Economic groups Tend to be more narrowly focused than in the past. Previously businesses relied on broad groups to represent them, and they found out that this led to some business interest being left out. So you get specials groups. Example: Business Roundtable (1972) its leaders are leaders of 150 of the largest business in the US, so it represents big businesses, not businesses as a whole. C. "Government interest groups" Represent workers in the public sector. Vertical component: officials lobby in Washington for money and authority. Horizontal component: disseminate data about new policies and programs. Example: National Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators. So the trend is that the number of groups is skyrocketing as well as the diversity of groups. With this we also get specialization. D. An exception: the decline of organized labor E. Organizational characteristics of new interest groups What do the new groups look like? 1. Narrow focus: single-issue groups they focus on one specific policy. Very different from the past where a group took on a number of issues. Example: National Rifle Association - it fights against gun control measures. It also has state and local chapters so it can localize. 2. Staff organizations with "checkbook" members These aren't mass-based organization groups. These groups don't have chapters at the state and local levels that meet periodically. Instead you write a check once a year, which goes to the state. So you don't have to attend meetings, All you have to contribute is money. Arguably, you are not gaining meeting skills and you are detached from the group. 3. Headquartered in Washington, DC II. Sources of the advocacy explosion A. Technological advances in communications They make it easier for groups to get organized. The US is too big without it for people to find people who have similar opinions. B. Expansion of governmental activity It can spur interest groups to form. Policy feedback: groups form in response to new programs. Examples: AARP formed after the creation of Social Security. 1. Programs as a stimulus for political organization and activity 2. Government as sponsor/patron: tax code, postal rate subsidies for establishing a group. Also, government subsidizes the postage on mail that the group sends. That's why you can receive so much mail from them. Walker talks about this in one of the readings. C. Counter-mobilization: Groups from in response to the formation of other groups. Example: Moral Majority Formed by Reverend Jerry Falwell in 1978. Important role in Reagan's 1980 victory. Example of countermobilization. Religious conservatives respond to public interest groups. III. Interest groups and democracy revisited Will single-issue groups polarize the political system, make unreasonable demands, and prevent compromise? Is the American public more thoroughly mobilized for action? Americans exercising rights to express their views. If more Americans get involved in the process, this is a very positive development. So you have a much wider range of people involved. Is it a good thing that previously inactive groups are now involved in politics? A. Critics worry about the impact of single-issue groups B. Supporters note that previously quiescent populations are now involved Permanent Campaign: Advocacy explosion "opened up" the political system, dismantling barriers between policymakers and the people. More scrutiny of public officials. Politicians more subject to interest group pressures and more obliged to engage in continuous campaigning. Essay on founders last time and federalism. What is this change? Why did it occur? Is it a good thing or a bad thing? Key Terms Advocacy explosion Single-issue group National Rifle Association "Checkbook" members Moral Majority represents counter-mobilization

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