MIDTERM SOC STUDY GUIDE Social Research & the Sociological Imagination o What is Sociology? Systematic study of human social interaction Enables us to see how groups/society in which we belong largely form behavior Society o o o Why study sociology? Helps us as individuals move beyond dominant ways of thinking Provides us w/ a better understanding of how our own behavior & belief systems function w/in the larger social world Newly gained insights encourage new levels of understanding & tolerance that extend beyond socialized norms & expectations Also produce new approaches to social interactions o o Functionalist Perspective o o Society is composed of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability w/in society Institutions (family, school, etc) in society are developed & persist cuz they serve a function & contribute to the overall stability of society Assume society is stable & orderly system Society is characterized by social inequality Social life is a struggle for scarce resources Social arrangements benefit some groups @ the expense of others Assume that society is continuous power struggle amongst competing groups Often based on class, race, ethnicity, or gender Symbolic interactionist perspective o o Society is sum of interactions of people & groups Behavior is learned in interaction w/ other people How people define a situation becomes the foundation for how they behave Focuses on how people make sense of their everyday social interactions Looks @ how meanings emerge through such interactions Examination of large scale patterns & social structures Functionalist & conflict focus here Microlevel analysis o Examination of small scale social patters & everyday interactions in small groups Symbolic interactionist approaches are based on this level Quantitative research Sociological research that is conducted primarily w/ numerical data Utilizes goal of scientific objectivity Conflict perspective Especially in the process of defining & dealing w/ social problems Large grouping of people that occupy particular geographical territory Share same culture & political authority
Macrolevel analysis
o
Qualitative research Sociological research methods that use interpretive description rather than numerical data Data are primarily collected in a field or naturalistic setting by observation or in-depth interview Study where collection of data is usually in the form of questionnaires/interviews Current population surveys (CPS) Public opinion polls (gallup) Marketing surveys
o
Survey research
o
Secondary analysis Analysis of already existing data that were originally collected by others Public records Official reports Radio TV Surveys by other researchers Books Newspapers Personal documents
o
Field research Study where collection of data is performed in a natural setting 2 main methods Participant observation Ethnography Participant observation Researchers collect data while directly participating in the activities of the group being studied
o o
Ethnography Detailed study of social setting in which the researcher may live for an extended time period Research method involving controlled situation where researcher studies the impact of certain variables on a subjects attitudes/behavior Subjects usually divided into experimental group & control group, then compared to see if they differ in relation to dependent variable Provides evidence for the confirmation/rejection of a hypothesis Validity Measures whether the study does what it says its doing Reliability Degree to which someone will find the same results under difference circumstances Experiments
o
2 main problems in conducting research
Culture & Socialization o Culture Language, beliefs, values, customs, knowledge, and material objects Passed from one generation o the next in a human group/society Sociologists regard as essential for survival
o
Cultural universals Cultural traits that occur across all groups/societies For the most part, there are none Respect can be, but definition varies greatly Anything used to communicate meanings or to represent something Culture wouldnt exist w/o symbols System of symbols designed to represent tangible objects as well as thoughts & ideas Utilized by ppl for the purpose of communication Collective ideas that define what is considered right or wrong, good/bad, and desirable/undesirable in a particular culture Abstract ideas Expectations/rules of behavior by which a society guides the behavior of its members Explicit statement of how we should behave
o
Symbols
o
Language
o
Values
o
Norms
o
Types of norms Folkways Informal norms w/in a culture that arent strictly enforced May be violated w/o serious consequences o Mores Strongly held norms that are strictly enforced May not be violated without serious consequences Taboos Mores so strong that their violation is considered to be extremely offensive & even unmentionable o Laws Formal norms that have been enacted by legislative bodies Violation will result in formal sanctions Incest Hygiene, clothing, etc
o
Sanctions Rewards for appropriate behavior Penalties for inappropriate behavior + and A group of people who share distinguishing beliefs, values, norms, and/or behaviors that distinguish them from dominant cultures Something basic in the value structure that is somewhat different from all of society Ethnicity Religion Region
o
Subculture
o
Counterculture
o
Group of people whose beliefs, values, norms and behaviors are in direct opposition to those of the dominant culture Complete opposition: KKK, Hippie movement
Attitudes toward cultural variation Ethnocentrism Tendency to evaluate other individuals/societies from the viewpoint of ones own culture Generally leads to negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviors See own culture as norm & as superior Culture shock Feeling of disorientation when encountering cultures that are radically different from ones own cultures
o
Functionalist perspective on culture Sees culture as helping people meet their biological, instrumental, and integrative needs Biological Food, procreation Instrumental Law, education Integrative Religion, art See culture as serving cohesive function, holding society together Stable, orderly system for how things work Culture enables the system
o
Conflict perspective on culture Sees values & norms as helping to create & sustain the privileged position of the powerful in society while excluding others Many see ideas as being utilized by those in power to affect the thoughts & actions of members of other classes Some see popular culture as produced or manipulated by those in power Many also see popular culture in the US as driven by the economic goals of our capitalist system Sees people as creating, maintaining, and modifying culture as they engage in everyday activities Symbols make communication w/ others possible because they provide us w/ shared meanings Some see people as continually negotiating their social realities Values & norms arent independent realities that automatically determine our behaviors Rather, we interpret them in each social situation we encounter
o
Symbolic interactionist perspective on culture
o
Socialization Lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire the beliefs, values, and behaviors that are considered appropriate for that society Essential link between an individual & society Physical, mental, social things needed for society We learn to be human & develop a sense of "self" Life-long process cuz culture is always changing Persons, groups, or institutions that teach us the beliefs, values, and behaviors that are considered appropriate for the society in which we live: Family
o
Agents of socialization: What are these & what functions do they perform?
Religion School Peer groups Media o o All play role in socialization Vary w/ each individual
Social Structure, Structure interaction, and deviance Social interaction The way people act toward/respond to one another Pattern of predictable social relationships that exist w/in a particular group or society Social institutions Statuses Roles Groups o Norms o Stigma o Status o o Status set o All the statuses that a person occupies @ a given time Most important status a person occupies Dominates all other statuses of an individual & is the overriding determinant of a persons general position w/in society Any group a person uses as a standard in evaluating their own behavior Usually serves to strongly influence a persons behavior & social attitudes Influence produced by type of group Family Friends o o Deviance Any that behavior/belief violates a cultures norms Formal & informal practices developed by social groups to encourage conformity & to discourage deviance External Legal system Can get messy Internal Meant to prevent as opposed to punish Social control Master status Socially defined position in a group/society that a person occupies @ a given time Involves a social ranking Any physical/social attribute that is considered by society to so devalue a persons social identity that it disqualifies that person from full social acceptance Primary/secondary Social structure
Reference group
Much easier to control o o Crime Deviant behavior that violates criminal law Conventional/street crime All violent crime Certain property crimes Certain moral crimes o Mugging, robbery, car-jacking Occupational/white collar crime Crimes committed by people in the course of their employment/financial affairs o Organized crime Involve supply of illegal goods & services for profit Political crimes Illegal/unethical acts involving the usurpation of power by govt officials Illegal/unethical acts perpetrated against the govt by outsiders seeking to make a political statement, undermine the govt, or overthrow it Social Structure & Inequality o Karl Marx 4 main assumptions 1) society is ultimately perfectible o Not selfish o o o o o Generous/kind Embezzlement, extortion 4 general types of crime
2) fundamental human activity is work Were creative Express self through work Lower class constantly wants to overthrow upper Communication gets rid of class conflict No more war, material, or social conflict o Capitalist o o Bourgeoisie Proletariat Working Class Theory of surplus value: What is exploitation for Marx? Capitalism is a drive for profit o o Competitive Owners of capital must compete End up w/ no more history
3) Whole of written human history is one of class conflict
4) state only represents interest of the property class State is the arm of the capitalist class Main classes in capitalism: capitalist vs. working class
Constant capital o Overhead Variable capital o Summary: o o Worker adds value to finished product Self o Work o Product o Taken away upon completion Earned $5 for making it, its taken for sale, will have to pay $100 to get the product back Subjective alienation from the state Where we realize that the state is really just an appendage of capitalism If attention is thrown to the state, it will help break it down False consciousness: Whose interest does dominant ideology represent? Capitalist class owns the means of production and communication Promote their own beliefs/desires Get ,,smoke-screened o Cant see that system is intrinsically set up this way Class in itself to a class for itself: What is the key change in the consciousness of the working class? Class in itself o o o Class cuz its what you are Behave on behalf of class, make class way you want it to be Realizing youre being exploited Class for itself Key change needed Crisis of overproduction: what is it? What other ingredient is needed in order for the revolution to occur? Capitalists are weakened & working class strengthened Take means of production from upper class o o Max Weber Ideal type methodology Believed Marx used flawed methodology Anti-theory (anti-positivism) o DOES NOT believe in theory Eliminates classes Have to have things done a certain way @ a certain time Dont freely choose work you do It is cost of raw materials subtracted from the cost of the item in its finished state Worker is being screwed over Pay worker less than value added to product Wages Rent, utilities are constant & unchanging costs; no control
Objective alienation: self, work, product
Society is too creative for theory o o o Cant reduce human behavior to theory Look @ how it does/doesnt conform Forces you to see both sides
Three dimensions of stratification: class, status, party. Why is it important to differentiate between them? Making automatic connections between them cant happen o Class o o o Status o o o Clear social component Very social communities People identify w/ own group Some loose/tight boundaries Loose: social group Tight: caste o Party o o Organized effort to gain political power Can be temporary or permanent Types: Family, religion, etc Group determines social prestige Out of economic order About ones relation to the market Also about relationship w/means of consumption Ability to acquire goods Each can affect each other depending on the society being observed
All levels can cross-cut & coexist 3 types of authority Traditional o o Legal o o o o State has legitimate power Merit system Bureaucracy Socialized to think in channels Charismatic o o "safety hatch" Based on individuals "special something" o Can galvanize people w/ their ideas Able to get & hold peoples attention Dont question those above us in the bureaucratic chain Makes us less likely to have a revolution Unable to agitate on own behalf Based on tradition Behaviors/loyalties are caused by long-standing patterns
Has to be routenized into one of other types or will die out
o Durkheim
NEEDS SYSTEM!
Assumptions about Human nature Humans are limited & needy Lack the ability to regulate ourselves internally & were vulnerable Individuals arent self sufficient & need society for guidance o o o o o o Provides our self regulating mechanism How to behave What to expect Norms of behavior Was topic usually considered outside the reach of social examination Scale of social integration o Altruism Only thinking of others Egoism Only think of self Scale of moral integrations Fatalism Feeling of being constrained No room to maneuver No hope to do what you want Constrained by external force Anomie No constraints No idea of norms Mechanical solidarity vs. organic solidarity Need greater social system to impose a moral order on us
Why study suicide 4 moral states governing human behavior
Sex & Family o Definitions of sex & gender Sex Biological differences between men & women o Gender Culturally & socially constructed meanings, beliefs, and practices that are defined as appropriate for males/females o Sex vs. Gender differences Sex - universal Reproductive anatomies Brain structures & chemistries Musculature Chromosomal, chemical, and anatomical Makes us male/female
Hormones Gender vary From one society to another Over history Through the lifespan By social group membership o How do sociologists view gender? o Acknowledge biological differences, but see social components of gender as much more important Argue that humans are highly symbolic We produce complex cultures & institutions that arent reducible to biology Were a lot more complicated than animals More than just biological factors Critiques of Sociobiological perspective o Physical differences do exist between men & women They are meaningless until social practices transform them into social facts Small biological differences are turned into larger differences through socialization Socially influenced differences are used as justification for social inequality Characteristics & behaviors associated w/ men are more highly valued & rewarded than those associated w/ women Worked w/ New Guinea tribes in 31-,,32 Arapesh Men & women are peaceful, calm, milk-mannered o o o Mundugumor Both men & women were violent & aggressive o o o o Tchambuli Women are dominant & aggressive Men less responsible & more dependent Women ran village/business affairs Men worried about appearance, no women o Considered weaker sex Concluded there is wide range of possible human behavior Culture activates/suppresses certain behaviors vs. others o o Sometimes differentiated based on gender Gender socialization: the role of agents The aspect of socialization that contains specific messages & practices concerning the nature of being male/female in a specific group or society Cannibalistic Warfare Same sex is enemy Hostile Cooperative Aggression is forbidden Prestige through sharing
Sex & temperament: What are Margaret Meads findings?
We learn gender appropriate behavior through the socialization process Parents & gender socialization Treated different from birth based on sex category Peers & gender Teach & reinforce gender norms Often more powerful agents of socialization than parents o Especially for boys
School Gendered institution Teachers & administrators provide messages about gender roles & behavior
Mass media TV and movies are o o Male dominated & portray both sexes in gender stereotypical roles & behaviors Overwhelmingly consistent w/ the ideals of hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity Advertising & marketing images