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OF OUTLINE RADFORD S TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR CHAPTER THREE: PHRASE MARKERS (1) a. b. a. b. a. b. S: The barbarians NP: the barbarians suddenly sudden destroyed destruction of millions millions the city the city to charities to charities (2) S: John very generously gives NP: John s very generous gifts of S: John steadfastly NP: John s steadfast refuses refusal (3) to do anything illegal to do anything illegal (4) The barbarians suddenly destroyed the city. (5) the barbarians sudden destruction of the city... 2 (6) a. b. (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) PHRASE: HEAD: a word or group of words that functions as syntactic unit in REFERENCE, OMISSION, and/or PLACEMENT. the minimal element of a phrase. those paintings all those paintings all those paintings of landscapes all those stolen paintings of landscapes of the Louvre s all those ten recently stolen paintings of landscapes of the Louvre s all those ten recently stolen Impressionist paintings of landscapes of the Louvre s on sale (14) a. b. John saw those Spanish paintings, and Bill saw these Italian ones. John saw those Spanish paintings, and Bill saw these ____. (15) (16) (17) 3 (18) (19) those Spanish teachers a. b. a. b. a. b. those teachers who are Spanish those teachers of Spanish those Spanish Braille teachers *those Braille Spanish teachers John saw those Spanish math teachers, and Bill saw these ________. John saw those Spanish math teachers, and Bill saw these Italian ones. (23) (20) (21) (22) (24) a. b. c. d. a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b. c. d. *(John met) those math Spanish teachers. *(John met) Spanish those teachers. *(John met) teachers math Spanish those. *(John met) Spanish teachers those. [+VOICED] [ VOICED] [+NASAL] [ NASAL] produced with vocal cord vibration not produced with vocal cord vibration involving exhalation through the nose not involving exhalation through the nose (25) (26) (27) [+ANTERIOR] articulated at the front of the mouth [ ANTERIOR] not articulated at the front of the mouth [m] [b] [p] [g] [+VOICED, +NASAL, +ANTERIOR] [+VOICED, NASAL, +ANTERIOR] [ VOICED, NASAL, +ANTERIOR] [+VOICED, NASAL, ANTERIOR] (28) 4 (29) System used in Radford s Transformational Grammar. (30) System used by the Langtech Parser. [+VBL] [ VBL] [+NML] [ NML] categories marked inherently for tense, aspect, voice, and/or mode categories not marked inherently for tense, aspect, voice, and/or mode categories marked inherently for number, person, gender, and/or case categories not marked inherently for number, person, gender, and/or case (31) a. b. c. d. Verbs (V): Nouns (N): Characterizers (C): Verbal Nouns (VN): [+VBL, NML] [ VBL, +NML] [ VBL, NML] [+VBL, +NML] go, goes, went, gone, going woman, women, she, all happy, happily, probably, on, after swimming, eating, reading 5 (32) The barbarians suddenly destroyed the city (33) the barbarians sudden destruction of the city... 6 FEATURES FOR ENGLISH MORPHOSYNTACTIC CATEGORIES CATEGORIES & EXAMPLES VERB: go, goes, went AUX: have, has, had MODAL: can, could, must NOUN: boy, milk, Mary PRONOUN: she, he, herself QUANTIFIER: all, both, half DETERMINER: a, the, this COMPLEMENTIZER: that, if DEGREE WORD: so, too, this PREPOSITION: in, out, after SUBORDINATOR: since, after COORDINATOR: and ADJECTIVE: happy, big MANNER ADVERB: happily SENTENCE ADVERB: probably VBL: NML: OPH: OCL: PRH: PSH: ENH: EVH: ECH: X1L: X2L: X3L: VERBAL NOMINAL OPEN PHRASE OPEN CLASS PREHEAD POSTHEAD ENVIRONMENT OF N ENVIRONMENT OF V ENVIRONMENT OF C X1 LEVEL X2 LEVEL X3 LEVEL VBL NML OPH OCL PRH PSH ENH EVH ECH X1L X2L X3L + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + inherently marked for distinctions in tense, aspect, voice, and/or mode inherently marked for distinctions in number, person, gender, and/or case occurring as the head of a phrase that freely contains other elements unlimited in number can freely occur before the head of a phrase can freely occur after the head of a phrase can freely occur immediately dominated by N3, N2, or N1 can freely occur immediately dominated by V3, V2, or V1 can freely occur immediately dominated by C3, C2 or C1 can freely occur immediately dominated by X1 (N1, V1, or C1) can freely occur immediately dominated by X2 (N2, V2, or C2) can freely occur immediately dominated by X3 (N3, V3, or C3) (34) a. b. 6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 66666666666666666666666 6666 666666 66666 66666 [V3 [N3 he] [C3 PST] [V1 [V0 left] [N3 her] ] ] 7 (35) a. b. 666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 666666666666666666666666666666666 6666 666666 6666 66666666666666 [V3 [N3 he] [C3 PST] [V2 [V0 left] [C3 happy/happily] ] ] 8 The need for three X levels above the head X proceeds from the following assumptions we have made all along: (36) a. The rules of language are structure dependent, that is, they refer to structural units phrases. or The rules refer to whole phrases, not pieces of phrases. In terms of a tree diagram, this means that rules make reference to nodes. b. Given (36), consider the RG structure for this young history student: (37) Verification of each level proceeds as follows: (38) a. The entire phrase (the whole N3) is replaced in the sentence This young history student said that he would pass. (he = this young history student) The anaphor one can occur with N2 elements: John met this young history student, and Mary met that one. (one = young history student) Conversely, one cannot occur with N1 elements: *John met a history student, and Bill met a biology one. (one = student) b. c. The need for the distinction between N2 and N1 is confirmed by a phrase like the Spanish Spanish teacher. Without two levels below the, there would be no way to disambiguate the senses of Spanish. The first one means from Spain; the second, of Spanish. Thus, the phrase equals the teacher of Spanish from Spain (compare (39a) and (39b)). 9 (39) a. the Spanish Spanish teacher b. the teacher of Spanish from Spain Residency requirements for this phrasal architecture predict the grammaticality of (40a) and (40b), and the ungrammaticality of (40c) and (40d). (40) a. b. c. d. the French math teacher the teacher of math from France *the math French teacher *the teacher from France of math In addition, these structures account for the ambiguity of phrases like the practical nurse, an intellectual historian, and the issue of student grants. All of these facts result from the following residency requirements of English: Descriptive modifiers of the head must hang from X2; elements of compounds and complements must hang from X1. Lastly, observe that this system allows the first member of a compound noun to be any one of the three major syntactic categories: in math teacher the noun head (teacher) is preceded by another noun (math); in physical therapist the head noun (therapist) is preceded by a characterizer (physical); and, in go cart, the head noun (cart) is preceded by a verb (go). 10 The three level hypothesis for V3 can be confirmed with reference to the following structure: (41) Sue will get the mail on Monday. Given (36), verification of the three V nodes proceeds as follows: (42) a. The existence of the V3 level is indicated by its pronominalization in the following sentence: Sue will get the mail on Monday; at least, that s what Bill says. (that = Sue will get the mail on Monday) The existence of the V2 level is indicated by its omission in the following sentence: Sue will get the mail on Monday, and Mary will ___ too. (get the mail on Monday is left out.) Further, V2 level elements can occur after the pro form do so as in the following: Sue with get the mail on Monday, and Mary will do so on Tuesday. (do so = get the mail) c. The existence of the V1 level is indicated by its omission in the following sentence: Sue will get the mail on Monday, but Mary won t ____ till Tuesday. (get the mail is left out.) Further, V1 elements can NOT occur after the pro form do so as the following indicates: *Sue will get the mail on Monday, and Mary will do so the pay checks on Tuesday. The existence of V1 (direct object and object complement position) as opposed to V2 (predicate nominative position, referring back to subject) also resolves the ambiguity in (43). b. 11 (43) a. John left the house messy. (i) messy an object modifier: [V3 [N3 John] [C3 PST] [V2 [V1 [V0 leave] [N3 the house] [C3 messy ] ] ] ] (ii) messy a predicate adjective, subject to agreement rules: [V3 [N3 John] [C3 PST] [V2 [V1 [V0 leave] [N3 the house] ] [C3 messy] ] ] b. John defied Bill to get even. (i) to get even a complementary infinitive with subject Bill: [V3 [N3 John] [C3 PST] [V2 [V1 [V0 defy] [N3 Bill] [C3 to get even] ] ] ] to get even a purposive infinitive with subject John: [V3 [N3 John] [C3 PST] [V2 [V1 [V0 defy] [N3 Bill] ] [C3 to get even] ] ] (ii) 12 c. The boys made good models. (i) make a transitive verb like build: [V3 [N3 the boys] [C3 PST] [V2 [V1 [V0 make] [N3 good models] ] ] ] make a copulative verb like become: [V3 [N3 the boys] [C3 PST] [V2 [V1 [V0 make] ] [N3 good models] ] ] (ii) In addition, the V1/V2 distinction explains the grammaticality of (44), and predicts the ungrammaticality of (45). (44) a. b. (45) a. b. John ate the food raw, nude. John left the house unlocked, drunk as a skunk. *John ate the food nude, raw. *John left the house drunk, unlocked. The V1/V2 distinction also accounts for the ambiguity of sentences like those in (46): (46) a. b. c. They left good friends. They left the country great men. They considered the candidates very concerned about the future of the country. The most striking feature of these examples is the parallelism between the N1/N2 distinction and the V1/V2 distinction, clearly seen in the following: (47) a. a young math teacher [N3 [C3 a] [N2 [C3 young] [N1 [N3 math] [N0 teacher ] ] ] ] a teacher of math that young (is rare) [N3 [C3 a] [N2 [N1 [N0 teacher] of [N3 math] ] [C3 that young] ] ] He taught math young. [V3 [N3 he] [C3 PST] [V2 [V1 [V0 teach] [N3 math] ] [C3 young] ] ] a superb math teacher [N3 [C3 a] [N2 [C3 superb] [N1 [N3 math] [N0 teacher ] ] ] ] a teacher of math that superb (is rare) [N3 [C3 a] [N2 [N1 [N0 teacher] of [N3 math] ] [C3 that superb] ] ] He taught math superbly. [V3 [N3 he] [C3 PST] [V2 [V1 [V0 teach] [N3 math] ] [C3 superbly] ] ] ] b. c. (48) a. b. c.

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