the Peter Great
The Westernization of Russia
Russian Expansion to 1600
Peter the Great as Tsar
Peters Background
Peter I was born in 1672. He was Tsar Alexis first son of his second marriage. His mother was Natalia Naryshkin. He had two older half-brothers Theodore and Ivan. In 1676 tsar Alexis died and Theodore became tsar. Theodore was dominated by his elder sister Sophia who ruled Russia in a virtual regency. In 1682 Theodore died.
Violence at Court
The families of Alexis two wives now struggled to control the throne through Ivan and Peter. Peters family managed to temporarily place him on the throne. However, Sophia, supported by the Armys musketeer regiments (the Streltsy) staged a violent coup against the Naryshkins. Most of Peters adult male relatives were killed. Several of the killings were carried out before the young tsars eyes. Peter was forced to live in internal exile while Sophia governed Russia through Ivan.
Internal Exile
Peter was not kept in close confinement. He was allowed to roam about the countryside. His wanderings often took him to the foreign ,,zone around Moscow. Here Western experts brought in to train Russians in engineering, carpentry, medicine, military science, etc. resided. Peter was fascinated by the foreigners and soon had more experience of them than any other Russian of his time. He became especially interested in ship building techniques and navigation. Peter discovered an old English ships boat in a warehouse near Moscow. With the help of the foreigners he managed to patch it up and set it afloat. This boat is preserved in the St. Petersburg Naval Museum and is sometimes referred to as the first ship of the Russian Navy.
Return to the Throne
In 1689 Sophia attempted to have Peter assassinated and establish herself formally as regent over Ivan. She was thwarted in this by other boyar families and factions in the Army. Peter returned to the throne. The liberated tsar did not depose Ivan although he ordered Sophia confined in a convent. Peter spent the next five years studying Western science and technology while his own mother served as regent for himself and Ivan
The German Quarter
Peter and the English "botik"
Botik (model)
The Young Tsar
Peter formally assumed control of the Russian government on his mothers death in 1694. In 1695 he embarked on war with the Ottoman Empire hoping to establish a Russian port on the Black Sea. In 1696 the Russians took Azov in the Crimea. This served as Russias first naval base. In addition to expansion Peter hoped war with the Ottomans might lead to Russia forming lasting alliances with the Western powers; particularly Austria as that empire was at war with the Turks as well (until 1699). However, Austria rejected all Russian overtures at a formal alliance.
The Frigate "Standart"
The Great Embassy, 1697-98
Rebuffed by the Austrians the Tsar decided to conduct a great tour of the West on his own. He would establish diplomatic relations with the Western powers and invite more experts to work in Russia. The first nation on the itinerary was Sweden, Russias traditional enemy. The Swedes proved distinctly unfriendly but Peter received a more cordial welcome in the Netherlands and England. In Holland he studied ship building and worked as a carpenter. At the beginning stages of the embassy the tsar often tried to conceal his identity bit without avail.
The Great Embassy II
In England Peter continued his education while creating a strong impression on his hosts. The Russians were as remarkable for their hard-drinking and joviality as for their curiosity. Few Russian travelers to the West in the 18th century ever managed to escape the stereotypes created by Peters embassy. In addition to the two maritime powers Peter visited Germany and Austria. He studiously avoided visiting France, Swedens closest ally. In Vienna his attempts to form a long-term alliance were again rebuked. After Vienna Peter intended to visit Italy but before he could do so he received news of a rebellion in Russia.
The Tsars Workshop in Holland
Peter as Ships Carpenter in Deptford
The Streltsy Rebellion
In 1698 the Streltsy regiments, jealous of the new Western-trained army units raised by Peter rebelled. They sought to put Sophia on the throne. The rebellion was successfully suppressed by the ,,new regiments before Peter returned from Austria, On his return Peter sought to punish the Streltsy. Over 2000 were executed, several beheaded by Peters own hand. A number of them were hung outside the windows of the convent where Archduchess Sophia was held.
Streltsy and Peters New Army
The Beard Tax
Peter disbanded the old regiments and set to build the Army entirely according to European standards. In addition he began to reform other aspects of Russian society. The famous beard tax dates from this period. Peter believed that to make Russians behave like Westerners they would have to look like Westerners. In another social reform Peter set an example for the Russian nobles by permitting his female relations to walk freely about Moscow and to entertain guests.
The Beard Tax
Background to the Great Northern War
Peter believed that the shortest path to the West was through War. Russias army and her society would prove themselves through the stress of conflict. In addition victory would serve as a means of gaining respect and alliances with Western states. The potential enemy was not hard to find. Sweden had driven Russia from the Baltic coast during Ivan the Terribles reign. Now Russia would seek to reclaim the land Ivan had lost and establish a Baltic port. Peter formed secret alliances with Swedens other traditional enemies Denmark and Poland. Sweden was ruled by an 18 year old, Charles XII whose inexperience as a ruler might leave Sweden vulnerable to attack. In 1700 the three allies declared War on Sweden virtually without provocation.
The Narva
The plan for aggression swiftly went awry, however. Charles XII proved to be a natural military leader and the Swedish Army was as formidable as it had been under Gustavus Adolphus. Sweden invaded Denmark and knocked that country out of the War. In November 1700 a Swedish army of 10,000 men met 35,000 Russians under Peter at Narva in what is today Estonia, The Russians were utterly routed and Peter was fortunate that the Swedes did not choose to advance on Moscow.
The Swedish Empire at its Height
The War Continues
Charles did not take the Russians as seriously a threat after Narva. Instead he moved the bulk of his field army to Poland to punish the Polish king Augustus for allying with the Russians. The Swedes won a series of victories in Poland ultimately deposing Augustus. However, Peters far more numerous armies began to restore Russias position on the Baltic. In 1703 Peter began to build Russias new capital on the River Neva on territory captured from the Swedes. This would one day be St. Petersburg.
Invasion
Charles XII decided in 1707 to invade Russia from Poland. The next year the Swedish army of nearly 40,000 men began to advance on Moscow. The Russians were ordered to create a wasteland in the Swedish armys path. Peasants who did not destroy their crops faced the death penalty. Charles attempts to ally himself with the ever-rebellious Cossacks of the Ukraine failed as the Russians managed to break up the Cossacks mobile capital, the stich. As winter approached Charles sought to move his Army into southern Russia in search of provisions. By the Spring of 1709 the Swedish Army was scarcely half the size it had been the year before. Charles besieged the city of Poltava hoping to capture supplies.
Charles XII
Poltava
Peter led a massive Russian Army to relieve Poltava. A Swedish Army marching south to join Charles was defeated at Lesnaya. Peters Army relieved Poltava but Charles did not abandon the field. Instead the Swedish Army launched a direct attack on the Russians despite being outnumbered more than 2 to 1. The Battle of Poltava is one of the most decisive encounters in European history. The Swedish army was crushingly defeated. Most of the survivors were captured and Charles XII had to escape into Ottoman territory.
Poltava June 27, 1709
Peter the Great at Poltava
The Russian Tide
The Russian attempt to force the Ottomans to surrender Charles failed. However, the Russians soon captured all Swedish territory in Estonia and Latvia and began an invasion of Finland. The Russian Navy won a victory over the Swedes at Hango in 1714 establishing Russian dominance in the Baltic. In 1716 Charles returned to Sweden from Turkey. However, his efforts to revitalize the Swedish war effort failed. He was killed leading an invasion of Denmark in 1718. By 1718 Prussia and Hanover had entered the War on Russias side and Sweden was forced to give up most of her German possessions.
The Treaty of Nystadt - 1721
Russias expansion and Swedens collapse now began to cause concern in the West. Britain, France and the Netherlands attempted to arbitrate between Sweden and its enemies. The appearance of Russian forces in Germany was particularly disturbing to the Western powers. Pressure from the West forced Russia to moderate her demands during the negotiation of the Treaty of Nystadt. Russia was unable to seize Finland or any Swedish possessions in Germany. However, all of Ingria, Estonia and Latvia became Russian. Swedens time as a world power was at an end. Russia had clearly become a part of Europe and would now be courted as an ally by the other powers.
Russian Expansion under Peter
Peters Internal Reforms I
Peter, like Frederick William of Prussia, sought to develop his countrys economy through a mercantilist trade policy. The Russian government also tried to speed the development of industry through direct intervention. Iron foundries and armaments factories in central Russia (near Tula) were built entirely with government funds. These factories were some of the largest enterprises in Europe. Peter established an advisory Senate and restructured Russias government administration. He divided the duties of government between ,,colleges (ministries) run by experts.
Peters Internal Reforms II
Peter introduced formal military conscription. Each peasant chosen to served spent twenty-five years in the Army. Nobles were also compelled to serve the state. A table of 14 ranks was established for civil servants, the Army and the Navy. If an official achieved a certain rank he would be automatically ennobled. Peter placed a poll tax on all Russians. This put the great bulk of taxes onto the backs of the serfs (who made up most of the population). Peter permitted Protestant and Catholic churches to be built in Russia for the many foreign advisors he brought in to serve the government. These were the first nonOrthodox churches ever to be permitted in Russia.
Peter the Great
St. Petersburg
The city of St. Petersburg sits in the far north of Russia on the River Neva. Today it is the northern-most city in the world to have over one million inhabitants. Peter began to build his new capital on land captured from Sweden in 1703. 30-40,000 conscripted peasants worked on it each summer for twenty years. The city was built almost entirely in the Western Baroque style with only its churches appearing overtly ,,Russian. Architects came from Italy and the Netherlands. Canals ran throughout the city giving it the nickname ,,the Venice of the North.
Moscow
The Kremlin St. Basils Cathedral
St. Petersburg
St. Petersburg -The Peterhof Palace
Interior of the Peterhof
The Limits of Reform - The Succession
Many of Peters reforms were undermined after his death as a result of a series of weak successors. The primary reason for this was Peters execution of his eldest son as a traitor on 1718. Peters son was a product of his first, unsuccessful marriage and their relationship had always been unhappy. Alexei became involved in plots against his father. The young tsarevitch fled to Austria in 1716. He was coaxed back to Russia with promises of a pardon the next year. On re-entering the country he was immediately arrested and forced to confess. His execution soon followed. Ultimately Peter was succeeded by his second wife Catherine, whose humble background denied her the support of Russias nobility. It was only with the accession to power of Catherine II in 1762 that Russia could be said to be once again pursuing a policy of modernization.
The Limits of Reform - Serfdom
Peter made Russia into a great power but did little for the majority of its inhabitants the serfs. In fact with the introduction of the Poll Tax and military conscription it is very likely that the life of the average Russian was worse after Peters reign than it had been before. The impact of Westernization was largely limited to the upper classes. In fact, Russia can be said to have become two nations by the time of Peters death.
Russian Peasants The Volga Canal