& Anatomy Physiology I Exam 1 Topics to Consider . 1. Active transport: endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis & receptormediated endocytosis) and exocytosis. ENERGY IS REQUIRED! Movement of molecules from LOW to HIGH concentration. - low to high concentration - Against concentration gradient - Requires energy Endocytosis- internalization of substances Phagocytosis- endocytosis of solids "cell eating" Pinocystosis- endocytosis of liquids "cell drinking" Receptor-mediated- triggered by receptors on cell surface Exocytosis- carrying material out of the cell expelling substances from cell.
2. All enzymes are made of one type of biological molecule which one? What do enzymes do? All enzymes are made from protein. - Increase rate of chemical reaction without changing itself. 3. Anabolism Dehydration Synthesis Building big molecules from smaller molecules. 4. Anatomical directions: superior, inferior, distal, proximal, lateral, medial, dorsal, ventral.
anterior posterior medial lateral inferior distal anterior
near the front of the body (ventral) near the back of the body (dorsal) pertaining to the midline of the body or structure pertaining to a side away from the head, or toward the tail or lower part of a structure farther from the attachment of an extremity to the trunk or a structure near the front of the body (ventral)
superior toward the head or upper portion of a structure proximal near the attachment of an extremity to the trunk or a structure
posterior near the back of the body (dorsal)
parietal
pertaining to the outer wall of the body cavity
5. Anatomical terms: a. cubital,- Of or relating to the elbow b. buccal, Of or relating to or toward the cheek c. inguinal, Of or relating to or near the groin d. patellar, Near or relating to the patella or kneecap e. antebrachial, Relating to the forearm. f. mental, g. cervical, h. femoral, i. otic, j. body cavities. 6. - Atomic number? Atomic mass (weight)?
7. Biological molecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids. Know monomers (lipids don't have monomers), characteristics, examples, uses, etc. Carbohydrates Monomers: monosaccharide ( glucose and simple sugars) - Can move through cell membrane - Are polar - Can be used for cell energy - Combine in dehydration synthesis to form polysaccharides with glycosidic bonds - Structural & support - 2 monosaccharide = disaccharides (2 simple sugars) - 3 carbons = trioses - 4 carbons = tetroes - 5 carbons = pentoses - 6 carbons = hexoses - Short term energy storage Lipids DO NOT HAVE MONOMERS - Fatty acids combine in dehydration synthesis to form fats & oil. - Non polar - Functions o Long term energy storage ( fats & oil) o Protection (oil & waxes) waterproof coating of body surfaces
o Component of cell membrane o Hormones Triglycerides 95 % of fat Glycerol fatty acids -3 carbon molecule - straight chain saturated fatty acids has a hydrocarbon chain with all single bonds (ex. Butter) an unsaturated fatty acid has a hydrocarbon chain with at least one double (ex. Oil) Phospholipid forms when 2 fatty acids attach to a glycerol Lipids as steroid hormones 4 common steroids hormones: o Cholesterol Starting point for the synthesis of all steroids. o Progesterone o Testerone o Estradiol ( estrogen) They are hydrophobic so they can pass directly through the cell membrane into the cell. All are similar in chemical structure.
bond -
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Protein Monomers Amino Acid - Amino acids combine in dehydration synthesis form polypeptides. - Proteins are functional units made of one or more polypeptide chains. - Stuctures is based on the sequence of monomers the amino acid. - Having varying degrees of polarity based on amino acid & composition. - 20 different types of amino acid - Functions o Structural component: cell, tissues, enzymes. _ Levels: - 1 the sequence of amino acids (think beads on a string) - 2 caused by hydrogen bonds helices or beta pleated sheets - 3 complex 3-D structures - 4 - two or more peptides interaction together
SHAPE DETERMINES FUNCTIONS!
Nucleic Acids Monomers Nucleotides - Combine in dehydration synthesis to form nucleic acids - Function: o Hereditary material (gene/DNA & RNA) o Direct the production of proteins
o There are 5 Nitrogenous bases: distinguish hereditary material Adenine Guanine Purines = double-ring stuctures Cytosine Thymine (only in DNA) Uracil (only in RNA) Pyrinidines = single-ring structure In RNA: A & U bond C & G bond
In DNA: A & T bond C & G bond Phosphate gap Sugar Nitrogen base ATP ( adenosine tri phosphate) Energy carrier molecule nucleic acid
8. Bonds: covalent, ionic, hydrogen. Covalent Bond: - Strongest bond - 2 or more atoms from molecule by sharing of electron - Stable & strong - Allows for diversity Hydrogen Bond: - weak bond - structure DNA (genetic material) has hydrogen bond - oppositely charged end of one polar molecule to another polar molecule - hold molecule together Ionic Bond: - Charge particles - Bond formed by one atom loses an electron(s) to another gain e. 9. Catabolism Hydrolysis Breaking big molecules into smaller molecules. 10. Look at Fig. 3.1 pg 58 11. Characteristics of a phospholipid Head? Tail? - Head- a hydrophilic phosphate head - Tail- two hydrophobic lipid tails 12. Compare and contrast benign and malignant cells and tumors. - Benign tumors uncontrolled growth, rapid mitosis hyperplasia
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Localized growth; does not spread Malignant uncontrolled growth - also hyperplasia Metasis spread to other body parts
13. Compare and contrast cancer cells and normal cells. Cancer cells are more demanding than normal cells - Cancer cells will complete for 02, nutrients with normal cells and these normal cells will die. - The functions of these cancer cells are abnormal and therefore do not perform the original function. 14. Compare and contrast DNA and RNA as to structure and components. 15. Electron shells- What is the electron capacity for the first shell? Second shell? Third shell? o First shell capacity- 2 electrons o Second shell capacity- 8 electrons o Third shell capacity- 8 electrons (Hint: Think of Freeway 288) 16. Genetic Engineering- how does it work? What are some uses?
17. How many electrons are in the outer shell of carbon? Oxygen? Hydrogen? Nitrogen? o Carbon (6)- 4 in outer shell o Oxygen (8)- 6 in outer shell o Hydrogen (1)- 1 in outer shell o Nitrogen (7)- 5 in outer shell 18. Hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic solutions what does this mean? Which way would water travel across a cell membrane placed in these three solutions? o Hypertonic- solute concentration is higher outside the cell than inside. Water moves out of a cell. Crenation (shriveling) may occur. o Hypotonic- solute concentration is higher inside the cell than outside. Water moves from outside the cell to inside of the cell. Cell bursting may occur. o Isotonic- solute concentration is the same inside and outside of the cell. There will be a small amount of fluid moving in
19. Levels of organization: atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems. 20. Passive transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, filtration. Characteristics of each? NO ENERGY REQUIRED! Movement of molecules from HIGH to LOW concentration. pH scale (Remember, this is a measure of H+ ions; not OH) What's acidic, basic, neutral? What's a weak acid? Weak base? Strong acid? Strong base? Planes: sagittal, frontal, transverse Polar vs. non-polar Properties of water: polar molecule, conduction, specific gravity, evaporation, transpiration, surface tension, cohesion. Proteins levels of organization: primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure. Saturated vs. unsaturated fats and lipids . . . what's the difference?
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Semiconservative replication of DNA process, purpose, when does it happen in the cell cycle? WHY is it called "semi-conservative"? Solutions what is a solvent? Solute? Solution? Terms: metastasis, oncogenes, contact inhibition, anatomy, histology, physiology, metabolism, biopsy, sarcoma, neoplasm, homeostasis, positive feedback, negative feedback. What defines the identity of an atom? What's found in the phospholipid bilyer plasma membrane around a cell? Integral proteins? Peripheral proteins? Cholesterol? Atoms:
o o o
What are protons? Where are they located? Charge? What do they indicate? What are neutrons? Where are they located? Charge? What's an isotope? Is the number of neutrons constant in different atoms of the same element? What are electrons? Where are they located? Charge? How do the electrons determine what bonds will form between atoms? What happens in each cell phase - G1, S, G2? What is the G0 gap phase? What kind of cells end up here? What controls movement through the gap phases?
17.
Cell Cycle
o o o
18.
Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. o Know what's happening in each phase. o What is the purpose of mitosis? o How is mitosis different from cytokinesis? o Interphase is NOT a part of mitosis, but it does get the cell ready for mitosis. What happens in Interphase? o How do the two daughter cells created at the end of mitosis compare to the original parent cell?
19.
Protein Synthesis: transcription and translation. LOTS of info here . . . STUDY! o DNA structure o What kind of bonds hold the nitrogen bases in DNA together? o mRNA how is it formed? o Modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus o tRNA how does it align amino acids based on the mRNA code? o Codons? Anticodons? o What 4 nitrogen bases in DNA? RNA?