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Spinach Water (Ipomoea aquatica, Convolvulaceae) A food gone wild Daniel F. Austin Research Abstract Water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) has been considered native to Africa, Asia, and the southwestern Pacific Islands. The herbs have been a medicinal vegetable in southern Asia since at least A.D. 300, and perhaps since 200 B.C. People still gather plants from the wild and cultivate them. With European arrival in these regions in the late 1400s, they became aware of this medicinal food and began carrying water spinach around the world. As with other transported plants, Europeans took along some common names and cultural uses. With the later migration of people from Asian countries to other parts of the world, the food was imported into new areas. Doubt persists as to where the species was domesticated. Data from uses as food, regions of cultivation, medicinal use, phylogenetic studies, common names, and pathogens suggest that water spinach was first cultivated in southeastern Asia. The plants may have been domesticated in China and India, but the data are equivocal. The vegetable sometimes escapes from cultivation to become an ecologically invasive weed. Europeans discovered I. aquatica in a variety of places in the Old World when they first arrived there. The first record was from the Malabar Coast of India when Rheede (1692) recorded it as Ballel (Table 1, Appendix 1). About the same time (1660-1690s) in eastern Indonesia, Rumphius (1741-1750) called the herb Olus-vagum. Linnaeus (1753) cited the Rheede name under Convolvulus reptans, but the epithet cannot be used because of a typification problem (Merrill 1917, 1939, van Ooststroom 1940, Verdcourt 1963). In spite of that complication, authors for many years incorrectly used I. reptans (L.) Poiret and information on the plants will appear under that name, particularly in older references. Another name that partly applies to this species is Convolvulus sagittaefolia Burman f. (1768), but that cannot be used either. Forssk ll (1775) finally discovered the plants in Yemen and proposed the name now used, I. aquatica. An oddity about Forssk ll s discovery is that he reported the herb from a desert area where the species presumably is not native. The horn of Africa and nearby Asia is mostly too Introduction As the binomial implies, this species is mostly associated with wetlands (Figures 1 & 2). While there are forms that are also cultivated in uplands, the wild plants are in waterways, such as canals, lakes, ponds, rivers, and in marshes and paddies with rice (e.g., Austin 1980, Fang & Staples 1995, van Ooststroom & Hoogland 1953). The fruits are tardily dehiscent or perhaps even indehiscent, and are presumably adapted for water dispersal. Like many others in the family, I. aquatica has labyrinth seeds, retaining air pockets that allow them to float for long periods (van Heel 1970, 1971). Several members of the family are famous for being dispersed by water (e.g., Guppy 1917). Correspondence Daniel F. Austin, Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2021 N. Kinney Road, Tucson, AZ 85743, U.S.A. daustin@desertmuseum.org Ethnobotany Research & Applications 5:123-146 (2007) www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 124 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Figure 1. Flowering branch of Ipomoea aquatica on a lake in Brevard County, Florida. Photo by Greg Jubinsky. Figure 2. Stems of Ipomoea aquatica growing on a lake in Brevard County, Florida. Photo by Greg Jubinsky. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf D. Austin - Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)- A food gone wild 125 Table 1. Some common names used for Ipomoea aquatica. For detailed information, synonyms, sources, and linguistic taxonomy, see Appendix 1. Common Names asagaona w rw r bai phai bal g g ballel batata aquatica batatilla acuatica beehob boniato de agua camotillo cancon cao coi Chinese water spinach dagoeblad daoen deli dili di darat delbol en-sai espinaca aqu tica furen gadu galatgat ganthian ganthian gi u mu ng gladgr ntsag ialanda kako kalajau kalamba kalayan kalmai saaga kalmi kalmi sag kamchon kan-kun kang kong kang koung kangko kangkoe ng Languages Japanese Hausa Thai Ilokano Malayalam Portuguese Spanish Marind Spanish Spanish Ilokano Mandarin Chinese English Sranan? [Creole Dutch] Kubu/Djambi Uncertain language Fulfulde/Fulani Japanese Spanish Hausa Ilokano Panjabi, Eastern Panjabi, Western Vietnamese Danish Malagasy Tidore Minangkabau Sanskrit Uncertain language Hindi Hindi Bengali, Hindi, Nepali Thai Shan Sinhalese Malay Uncertain language Buru, Bentong, Gorontalo Madura/Madurese kangk ng kangku ng kangkum kango kankon kankong kanto karkarei valli karmi karmira kingkoi klaamba koilangu kong cai kong sim chae kong xin cai kp kp i kramuwan ku-shin-sai kulum sag lalidih lar laylayduuji liseron d eau lorenzo luve ni tombithi maaloole mul si keum ch i nadi-shaka n lichi baji nalike naniri n ri ndrinikava nggango dano Common Names kangkong Languages Aklanon, Bali/Balinese, Bis ya, Bukitan, Dutch, English, Ilokano, Javanese, Tok pisin, Yapese Pamp ngan, Tag log Uncertain language Palauan/Belau Tok pisin Japanese Chamorro Bolango Tamil Hindi, Santali/Satar Santali/Mundari Maluku Sanskrit Tamil Mandarin Chinese Korean Mandarin Chinese Mende Tharu Japanese Parbate Madura/Madurese Nusalaut/Tengah Mende French Nauruan Fijian Somali Korean Marathi Gujarati Bengali Bugis Panjabi, Eastern Panjabi, Western Fijian Nusalaut/Tengah www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 126 Common Names nir-kolmi no do oetangko olus-vagum ong tung tsoi ota karisa pak bong phak bong pak boong chin pak bung pak bung phak bong panangoi pangpong patate aquatica patate aquatique patuasag paya phak thot yot pintoer pui-sag rau mu ng roempoen rukau taviri rumpun sajor sajor kankong sajoran lalap seeri s riokang Ethnobotany Research & Applications Languages Tamil Karen Marind, Maluku/Kajeli Latin Cantonese Chinese Fijian Laotian Thai Thai Laotian Gorontalo, Tonsawang Bali/Balinese Italian French Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi Uncertain language Thai Tonsawang Hindi Vietnamese Minangkabau Rarotongan Aceh/Atjeh Gorontalo, Mongondow Malay Lembak Chuukese, Puluwatese Gorontalo Common Names sisu lum sisu lumi Sumpf-Trichterwinde swamp cabbage swamp morning glory takako tangkong tanidri tatanggo te kang kong te ruku teng cai teng-teng cai thota-kura tong cai tr ku n utango vellucchio d acqua wa kumala Wasserspinat water convolvulus water sweet potato w ng c i wilec wodny wu hsin ts ai wu xin cai wung ts ai y -sai Languages Ririo Batatana German English English Galela, Makian, Tidore Aklanon, Bis ya, Ilokano Makasar Pamona/Bare`e Kiribati Kiribati Mandarin Chinese Mandarin Chinese Telugu Mandarin Chinese Khmer Buru Italian Fijian German English English Mandarin Chinese Polish Cantonese Chinese Mandarin Chinese Cantonese Chinese Japanese dry to support these plants outside permanent water sites and gardens. Perhaps this discovery presaged the subsequent movement of the species as it is now pantropical, and is considered edible (Figures 3 & 4), medicinal, or a pernicious weed by different people (e.g., Edie & Ho 1969, Islam et al. 2004, Langeland & Burks 1998). Invasive Species Rumphius (1741-1750) was one of the first to comment on the wandering nature of these plants. He contended that the Malay name kangkong meant it is restless. Later Heyne (1927) commented on the marked ability of I. aquatica to spread and compete with other plants. Although Ochse (1951) was advocating water spinach as a vegetable in Florida, he also pointed out that it had marked potential to escape. The species has been introduced repeatedly into Florida since before the 1950s and has escaped from cultivation (Edie & Ho 1969, Gordon & Thomas 1997, Ng 1954, Ochse 1951). The plants also have been introduced elsewhere in the New World, including Belize, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Florida, Brazil, the Guianas, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, and Puerto Rico. Water spinach is known and eaten in at least California, Florida, Oregon, New York, and Washington, basically throughout the United States because of dispersal to oriental populations. The vegetable is also marketed in several European countries. The vigorous growth of the plants quickly covers expanses of water. Heyne (1927) wrote that Het wordt vermenigvuldige met stukken van de stengels en beslaat spoedig een groote plaats (It multiplies rapidly with pieces of the stems covering a large place in a short time). Under good conditions, I. aquatica produces 190,000 kg fresh weight biomass per hectare in nine months (Lange- www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf D. Austin - Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)- A food gone wild land & Burks 1998). Propagation is mostly by fragmentation (Edie & Ho 1969), but water spinach can produce 175-245 fruits per plant (Patnaik 1976). Some even consider water spinach a problem in its homeland. Patnaik (1976) studied I. aquatica trying to find a vulnerable period in its lifecycle to control it in Orissa, India. Similarly, Gangstadt (1976) tried to discover effective management for the Philippines. Why the plant has become a problem only in Florida in the United States is not clear. It may be as simple as time since introduction, but Edie and Ho (1969) suggested climate as a factor. They said the crop only grew satisfactorily when the mean temperature is above ca. 25 C. The species continues being cultivated in California, Texas, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. California grows nearly 90% of the U.S. commercial crop, which is exported to at least Oregon, Washington, and New York (Harwood & Sytsma 2003). Possession of I. aquatica in Florida has been prohibited since 1973 (McCann et al. 1996), but Asians continue 127 growing it illegally and it is still for sale (Austin, unpublished data 2001, Thirumala pers. comm. 2006). Infestations in some Florida public lakes have been eradicated, or at least the attempt made (Langeland & Burks 1998). Water spinach was listed as a noxious weed in 35 states by 2003 (USDA 2006). Some include this aquatic food plant among the 100 of the worst of the world s invasive plants (ISSG 2005). There are academic and practical reasons for knowing where I. aquatica was domesticated. This paper examines data from six aspects of the species to explore where water spinach may have been taken into cultivation. Human and Animal Food Throughout much of tropical Asia this is a common food eaten by all social groups (Burkill 1966, Roxburgh 1824). This potherb is popular across an array of countries as an addition to other foods at mealtime; some eat water spinach two or three times a week (Cornelius et al. 1985). There are several ways people consume these herbs, although the most frequent is a cooked vegetable. A common method is to lightly fry the young tips, including stems and leaves (Westphal 1993). However, tips are also eaten boiled, steamed, or added to soups, stews, curries, sambals (Facciola 1990), and even pickled (Figure 4). Often the branch tips are cooked with onions and chilies, or with garlic, ginger, other spices, shrimp paste, and cuttlefish (Herklots 1972, Wikipedia 2006). Several dishes are regional favorites, such as Cantonese furu (w ng c i with bean-curd), and with bean paste and shallots in Hakka cuisine (Fujian, Guangdong, Jiangxi,). Thais stir-fry pak bung with oyster sauce and shrimp paste. In Vietnam Figure 3. Fresh cuttings in Bangkok market. Photo by author. Figure 4. Pickled branches in Bangkok market. Photo by author. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 128 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Medicinal Uses As with many plants (Etkin 2006, Ogle et al. 2003), this is considered a food with medicinal effects. Ipomoea aquatica is considered a laxative, is recommended for piles, and in certain nervous conditions with sleeplessness and head-ache (Burkill 1966, Read 1936, Van Valkenburgh & Bunyapraphatsara 2001). Some say the plant has a calming impact on people, an action that McDonald (pers. comm. 2006) referred to as hypnotic. Eating the plants is thought to aid in getting to sleep, and he agrees that eating a sufficient quantity brings on drowsiness. Naples (2005) also thought that Eating a lot of the plant has a nerve-calming effect in cases of sleeplessness, stress, headache, general weakness and leukorrhoea. The laxative effect may have been why Heyne (1927) recommended water spinach for treating hemorrhoids, but more likely it was applied directly as a poultice. People in Borneo, Cambodia, and Malaysia use it as a poultice to treat fever with delirium and put buds on ringworm lesions (Menaut 1929 in Burkill 1966, Van Valkenburgh & Bunyapraphatsara 2001), or on boils (Heyne 1927). In Burma, India, and Indonesia the juice is used as an emetic to treat poisoning from opium, arsenic, and from drinking polluted water (Kapoor & Kapoor 1980, Uphof 1968, Van Valkenburgh & Bunyapraphatsara 2001). Heyne (1927) said Anderen echter waarschuwen tegen het gebruik van veel kangkoeng, omdat het witten vloed zou opwekken (Others, however, warn against the use of much kangkoeng, because it causes leukorrhoea). Naples (2005) agreed. One aspect recorded by Naples (2005) is that the seeds are a strong pesticide killing earthworms, leeches, pig tapeworm and other intestinal parasites. This trait has not been located elsewhere, but is not surprising since there are many poisonous compound found in the family (Austin 2000, Austin et al. 2001, Schimming et al. 2005). In much of southeastern Asia, I. aquatica is considered a tonic. The species contains several vitamins, including A, B, C, E, and U (S-methyl-methionine), and is used to treat gastric and intestinal disorders (ISSG 2005, Roi 1955, Watt 1889 [1972], Westphal 1993). The species also contains aliphatic pyrrolidine amides, carotenoids, hentriacontane, -sitosterol and its glycosides, prostaglandin, leukotrine, N-trans- and N-cis feruloyltyramines (Bruemmer & Roe 1979, Chen & Chen 1992, Snyder et al. 1981, Sundar Rao 1990, Tofern et al. 1999, Van Valkenburgh & Bunyapraphatsara 2001, Wills & Rangga 1996, Wills et al. 1984). Fresh plants have from 1.9-4.6% proteins; carbohydrates average ca. 4.3% (Wills et al. 1984, Yamaguchi 1990). In the Philippines a mouthwash made of water spinach was experimentally shown to be effective against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (Castillo 1982). gi u mu ng is used as a garnish and eaten with noodles. The dishes adobong kangkong (spicy pork or chicken) and sinigang (kangkong, sour fish, and meat stews) are popular in the Philippines (Wikipedia 2006). Ipomoea aquatica is also fodder for animals, in limited quantity as it is somewhat laxative. These herbs are often grown in fish ponds by Chinese, particularly as food for their pigs (Ly et al. 2002, Westphal 1993), although they are also fed to cattle and fish (Edie & Ho 1969). In Vietnam, gi u mu ng is fed to chickens, ducks, and pigs (Ogle et al. 2003). While the herbs are eaten in Africa, their use is known in only Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania (Dalziel 1937, VainoMattila 2000, Williams 1949, Sebsebe pers. comm. 2006). Of seven regions in Ethiopia, only one locality in the Ilubabor region claimed to eat the plants (Sebsebe pers. comm. 2006). Similarly, in Australia, there is no record of long and widespread use, and Payne (1956) thought the plant was introduced there. Water spinach retains an importance as food in southeastern Asia. These data suggest a nativity in southern and southeastern Asia. Regions of Cultivation Records were found of water spinach being cultivated in Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, New Guinea, Okinawa, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam (Clarke 1885, Cornelius et al. 1985, French 1986, Herklots 1972, Heyne 1927, Manandhar 2002, Walker 1976, Watt 1889 [1972], Westphal 1993, Wiser 1955, McDonald pers. comm. 2006). In many of these places, growing of the food is deeply embedded in local cultures. While the species is cultivated in places not in the core of its range, like northern Australia and Hawaii, there I. aquatica is associated with diaspora from southeastern Asian countries, particularly China, Vietnam, the Philippines, and western Malaysia. Indeed, a survey of the literature about this crop suggests a dominantly southeastern Asian group of researchers (cf. Literature cited). For some time, kangkong has been extremely important in Malaysia and at least western Indonesia. Many consider water spinach second in importance to pak choi [bai cai] (Brassica rapa L. Parachinensis group, syn. B. chinensis L.), the ubiquitous Chinese vegetable (Tay & Toxopeus 1993). Pak choi, an avowedly Chinese vegetable, dates back to the 5th century A.D., yet it was introduced into the Malacca Straits Settlement only in the 1400s. Cultivation regions do not contradict a southeastern Asian origin. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf D. Austin - Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)- A food gone wild In Africa I. aquatica is used to treat diabetes as it is in Sri Lanka (Iwu 1993, Malalavidhane et al. 2000). Plants contain insulin-like compounds clinically shown to be effective. For West Africa, Iwu (1993) gives no references for this species. Elsewhere the species is used to treat abscesses, mental illness (Tanzania), and intestinal problems (Somalia) (Haerdi 1964, Samuelsson et al. 1992). There are records of I. aquatica being used medicinally in at least Africa, Borneo, Burma, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka. Medical use focuses around southeastern Asia. Scarcity of use suggests that the plants began being used as medicine in Africa comparatively recently. Phylogenetic Relationships Choisy (1845) created Ipomoea section Erpipomoea, including I. aquatica, I. pes-caprae (L.) R. Brown in Tuckey, and a series of other species. Hallier (1893, 1905) did not use the Choisy name, but proposed and then emended section Leiocalyx, and placed I. cairica (L.) Sweet, I. obscura (L.) Ker Gawler, and I. ochracea (Lindley) G. Don with I. aquatica and I. pes-caprae. Van Ooststroom (1940) and Van Ooststroom and Hoogland (1953) also included I. aquatica, I. cairica, I. ochracea, and I. pes-caprae in section Leiocalyx. Subsequent authors have adopted section Erpipomoea, the earliest name for a group including I. aquatica. At least in recent years, it has been widely acknowledged by taxonomists that Erpipomoea was probably polyphyletic. The taxon was retained because there was no clear alternative. Both morphological and molecular genetic studies now indicate that I. asarifolia (Desrousseaux) Roemer and Schultes and I. pes-caprae are related, and that the others probably are not that close to this pair (Austin 2005). Exactly what other species are related to I. aquatica is problematical. No thorough morphological study has been made, although cotyledons have been examined in a few species, as have isozymes (Das & Mukherjee 1997). These authors concluded that I. aquatica was basal to the other species studied, although Ogunwenmo (2003) thought that was because of parallel evolution in cotyledons. Still, even he considered I. aquatica basal to the small sample he examined. Molecular genetic data published to date also have been ambiguous about placement. Miller et al. (1999) found that ITS sequences grouped I. aquatica and the Australian endemic I. diamantinensis J. M. Black with 100% bootstrap support. This pair was joined with I. obscura and I. ochracea with 66% of replications. Other sequences used to examine relationships within Ipomoea were waxy (Manos et al. 2001, Miller et al. 1999), 129 and the four chloroplast regions rbcL, atpB, psbE-J operon, and the trnL-trnF intron/spacer (Stefanovic et al. 2002). In addition, Miller et al. (2002) made a comparison of Bayesian and maximum likelihood techniques. Each of these studies found somewhat different results, from no resolution (Stefanovic et al. 2002) to alliance with different arrays of species (Manos et al. 2001, Miller et al. 1999). Some studies suggested an alliance of I. aquatica with section Mina, but Miller et al. (2004) excluded it, without comment, from further study of that group. All molecular genetic studies gave somewhat different results when indicating the species related to I. aquatica. Similarly, Bayesian and consensus methods of analyzing molecular data sets gave distinct groupings. Still, some morphological and molecular data indicate that I. aquatica is indeed allied with I. cairica and I. ochracea. Thus removed from the type species of Erpipomoea (I. pes-caprae), the next earliest name for a section containing I. aquatica is Leiocalyx (type I. kentrocarpa Hochstetter ex A. Richard). With this altered circumscription, Erpipomoea is restricted to I. pes-caprae, I. asarifolia, and their allies. Several relatives of I. aquatica (i.e., I. cairica, I. obscura, I. ochracea) are spread from western Africa across the Indian subcontinent and northern Australia to China. All of the likely close relatives are now pantropical through introduction except for I. diamantininsis. That species is endemic to northern Queensland in Australia. Because several of the molecular genetic studies excluded this endemic (Hulsenbeck et al. 2002, Manos et al. 2001, Miller et al. 2002, 2004), not much more can be concluded. What can be said is that phylogenetic affinity does not negate a southeastern Asian origin for I. aquatica. Common Names Common names were espoused by De Candolle (1886) and more recent authors (e.g., Austin 1998, Burkill 1953, Jain 1963) as one way of determining the region of oldest use for plants. There are two verifiably old names for I. aquatica and at least one other that is perhaps as old (Table 1, Appendix 1). The Sanskrit kalamba is the most ancient name known for I. aquatica. Sanskrit was spoken by people moving into northwestern India before 1000 B.C., and its names for organisms typically are estimated at 2000-200 B.C. years old (cf. Decker-Walters 1999 for recent summary). For water spinach, Monier-Williams (1899) listed the names kaDamba, kalamba, kalambaka, and kalambukA. Thus, before ca. 250 B.C., when Prakrit evolved from Sanskrit, there were at least four variations of the word (Malten 2003). The spellings kaDamba and kalamba were translated by Monier-Williams (1899) as the stalk of a potherb, and both kalambaka (crane potherb), and kalambukA (laughter potherb) were said to be kinds of kalamba. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 130 Ethnobotany Research & Applications people loaded provisions on their vessels and the only vegetable that would remain fresh during the voyage was a wild plant along the river banks. They put this in pots and propagated it during the voyage. In Taiwan, they turned this wild plant into an important cultivated vegetable crop. Mainland people were settling on the island of Taiwan by A.D. 1167 and maybe before. Fukienese seem to have been the first on the island although Hakkanese from Hong Kong are also common. The Sanskrit kalamba shows that people were aware enough of the plants to give them a name by at least 200 B.C. and possibly earlier. Since people recognized two kinds, it is possible that they were referring to cultivated and wild plants, but there are not enough data in the dictionaries to know what they meant. Also, the ancient kalamba left descendant words in Bengali (Bangladesh; West Bengal, south to Uttar Pradesh, India), Hindi (across northern India, south to at least Orissa), Mundari (eastern India; Nepal), Nepali (Nepal), Tamil (Tamilnadu and nearby states), and Parbati, Satar, and Tharu (all Nepal). The languages Bengali, Hindi, and Nepali are considered to be directly related to Sanskrit (Gordon 2005). This lineage of Austro-Asiatic, Indo-European, and Sino-Tibetan language families (Appendix 1) denotes an early high importance of I. aquatica to several widely spread Indian cultures and their closest neighbors. The oldest Chinese document clearly referring to I. aquatica was written by Ji Han (A.D. 304) during the Chin Dynasty (A.D. 290-307). This book describes the modern Kwangtung [Guangdong] and Kwangsi [Guangxi] provinces of southern China and the central and northern parts of Vietnam. The original Chinese text is reproduced by Li (1979) where this plant is rendered . He added modern Cantonese yung ts ai ( ); this is w ng c i in pinyin. Ji Han noted the morphological similarity of yung ( ) to lok uei ( , Basella rubra L.). That comparison, the character used, and the growing of the plants in mats floating on water confirm the identity as I. aquatica. Ji Han wrote in the 300s that this was a strange vegetable of the south to people in northern China. According to Ng (1954), Ching (1968) and Edie and Ho (1969), the modern name w ng c i ( ) appeared in writing with Chiang Yu Shik (A.D. 1056-1063), in the Sung Dynasty. During the Ming Dynasty (1590-1596), Li Shih Chen (1596, Read 1936) quoted Ji Han of the Chin Dynasty (Edie & Ho 1969). Li Shih Chen added that the name (buried potherb) came from the method of planting and growing the vegetable (cf. Appendix 1). To make the situation confusing, a second name for these plants is written differently but pronounced the same (homophones)-w ng c i in pinyin; ong ts ai in Cantonese (Figure 5). This Cantonese and Taiwanese name has a venerable usage (Ching 1968, Edie & Ho 1969), although its age is yet to be determined. One story I was told in 1980 by Shu-Chen Yu Hu, a skilled caligrapher from Hebei province, is that was applied during a period in Chinese history when people were forced to flee their homelands by boats and took along one of their favorite vegetables in earthen pots. Ching (1968) and Edie and Ho (1969) consider this a legend particularly common in Fukien and Taiwan. The story holds that the ancestors of the Chinese in Taiwan came from Fukien to escape the Figure 5. Caligraphy of ong ts ai [w ng c i] written reign of a tyrant (unnamed) many centuries ago. These by Shu-Chen Yu Hu. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf D. Austin - Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)- A food gone wild There are other interpretations of and and their origins (Lee 2006). The true ages remain uncertain, but the words (buried propagule) and (earthen jar or urn) are so old that few modern Chinese speakers recognize or really understand them (cf. Lee 2006). The second name is used in some dialects, but less often in formal writing. Still both words are included in the Wade-Giles system (cf. Mathews 1944- p. 1062; p. 1134), and in the Chinese Character Dictionary (Chin et al. 1995-2006). Also, Yung and Yao (1985), Staples (1998), and Peng (2000) list for Taiwan. Although perhaps younger than the Indian name, w ng still appeared in Chinese documents by ca. A.D. 300. Inclusion of the name in modern Chinese dialects as different as Cantonese, Hakkanese, Mandarin, and those spoken in Taiwan also points to an ancient use in that region. The most widespread name for I. aquatica is kangkong and its variants (Table 1, Appendix 1). Blust (2000) considered kangkong either Malay or from one of the languages in the Philippines; he could determine no more closely with linguistics. Rumphius (1741-1750) thought that kangkong meant, it is restless. That meaning cannot be confirmed by modern speakers or dictionaries (Horne 1974, Winstedt & Wilkinson 1949, Lau pers. comm. 2006), however, there is a proverb in Malay that refers to I. aquatica as the ill weed that grows apace (Winstedt & Wilkinson 1949). Perhaps it was that comparison that Rumphius was alluding to. Dictionaries also show the word kangkong for a species of frog in Malaysia that is supposed to say its name with its onomatopoetic call. Otherwise, to most modern speakers of Malay kangkong is simply the word for water spinach. 131 Kangkong is applied to several other plants, but usually with modifiers (e.g., kangkong pasir for Xenostegia tridentata (L.) D.F. Austin and Staples; akar kangkong gajab for Vitis lanceolaria (Roxburgh) Wallich). The name kangkong apparently has been carried by people speaking Malay, or the Europeans who adopted the name, across much of Malaysia, Indonesia, and the western Pacific Islands (Table 1, Figure 6). Malays, Portuguese, Spanish, or Dutch, all early traders in that region, may have carried the name kangkong and the vegetable with them from place to place. Rumphius (1741-1750) recorded that the people of Ambon (Moluccas Islands) had no name of their own for the plants, but used the Malay kangkong. Transport is also indicated by the fact that kangkong is a loan word in Guam and the nearby Marianas Islands (Blust 2000). While the Chamorro-speakers on these islands were derived from the Philippines, Blust (2000) thought that either the Malays (beginning ca. 1292) or the Spanish (beginning 1565) introduced the name kangkong. He favored the Spanish, although he did not mention possible transport elsewhere by the Portuguese and Dutch. The Portuguese took Malacca on the Malay Peninsula opposite the straits and Sumatra in 1511 and dominated spice trade with Europe for about 94 years. They then were replaced by the Dutch in 1605 (Forrest 1995), who established their headquarters in Batavia (modern Jakarta, Java). The Dutch dominated trade through the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC or Dutch East India Company) for the next 190 years (Adams 1996). Either group could have spread the name kangkong, if not the plants. Although Blust (2000) did not think that the Malay traders took the word to Guam in the 1200s, he did not exclude their taking it elsewhere. Even the early date Figure 6. Distribution of Ipomoea aquatica in the Old World. Based on herbarium, literature, and other records. Dots represent country, state/province, or island records; all are used because source data are variable. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 132 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Larvae of Spodoptera (Acronictinae, Noctuidae) are often called armyworms and examples in temperate regions are S. dolichos (Fabricius) (sweet potato armyworm), S. eridania (Stoll) (southern armyworm), S. exigua (H bner) (beet armyworm), and S. frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (fall armyworm). All of these are generalists, feeding on 80 or more different plant species in a range of families (Capinera 2001). Spodoptera litura (tobacco cutworm, cluster caterpillar) is considered an international pest (Herbison-Evans & Crossley 2006) and the larvae eat a wide array of cultivated plants, ranging from vegetables to ornamentals. There are several species of Albugo (Albuginaceae, Peronosporales, Oomycota, Straminopila), protists formerly considered fungi, that have been named after Ipomoea species because they were thought to be confined to those (Holliday 1980, Sawada 1922). These include A. ipomoeae-aquaticae Sawada, A. ipomoeae-hardwickii Sawada, A. ipomoeae-panduratae (Schweinitz) Swingle, and A. ipomoeae-pes-caprae Ciferri. There has been ambiguity about the species that causes problems with I. aquatica some call it Albugo candida (Persoon ex L vill ) Kunze and others say it is A. ipomoeae-aquaticae (e.g., Chen et al. 1986, Gacutan et al. 1978, Ho & Edie 1969, Khoo & Lim 1989, Naples 2005, Shivas et al. 1996). The organism has even been called A. ipomoeae-panduratae, and both that and A. candida are known to occur on a range of species. Albugo candida is a pathogen on many Brassicaceae and Capparidaceae, while A. ipomoeae-panduratae infects an array of Convolvulus and Ipomoea species. Holliday (1980) recorded experimental attempts to infect several species of both Convolvulus and Ipomoea with A. ipomoeae-aquaticae and it grew only on I. aquatica. Albugo ipomoeae-aquaticae occurs at least in China (Hong Kong, Fuzhou), India, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, northern Australia, and Irian Jaya. Although the range now has been expanded from the places where Holliday (1980) knew the species, no other references have been found of this pathogen on any plant but I. aquatica. Albugo ipomoeae-aquaticae is a specialist pathogen on I. aquatica and has a range restricted to southern and southeastern Asia. These data point to an origin of both in that region. Origin Debates Everyone agrees that I. aquatica is native in southeastern Asia (e.g., Filatenko et al. 2003, Li 1970). Within Asia, however, there are two places that are typically cited as having domesticated the plants. One opinion is that the food species was originally Chinese. Purseglove (1968) implied that it was domesticated there and Sinskaya (1969 in Filatenko et al. 2003), Chang (1970), and Li (1970) clear- of the 1200s is markedly younger that those for Chinese and Sanskrit. No direct dates are available on kangkong. Although botanical literature says the word has been loaned to English, none of the etymological dictionaries even list kangkong (e.g., American Heritage Dictionary 2006, Cambridge Dictionary of American English 2006, OED Online 2003, Webster 1996). The same seems to be true of Danish and Dutch. Kangkong is a loan word in Bali, Bukit, Chamorro, Javanese, Madurese, Malay, Minangkabau, Palauan, the Philippine languages, Sinhalese, Tok pisin, and Yapese; it may be in several others (Table 1, Appendix 1). Historical data indicate that kangkong is younger than either kalamba and w ng c i, but that does not confirm that use of the plant in the Malay Peninsula is younger. It simply indicates a lack of data. People in neither Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, nor Vietnam, use one of these affirmably ancient names (Appendix 1). Instead, each country has its own unique designations for I. aquatica. No historical documents or etymological data have been found to suggest ages of either of the names used in these areas. Names do not suggest recent adoption of the plants, but give unique local views of the species. Since these countries have different names for the species, perhaps that indicates marked antiquity in those areas. The fact that language families as distinct as Austro-Asiatic, Dravidian, Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and Tai-Kadai show a diversity of names must indicate great age in southeastern Asia. There is some name variety in Africa and the Pacific, but it does not seem to be as great as in continental southeastern Asia. Names and their historical origins point to southeastern Asia as the cradle of I. aquatica. Plant Pathogens and Pests A series of problems (Westphal 1993) are created by Pythium, causing damping-off, Cercospora leaf spot, and root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood and M. javanica (Treub) Chitwood). Aphids may be pests in fields, particularly those with ratoon cropping (as a perennial with new shoots coming up from the root). None of these are host-specific. Lepidoptera that feed on the plant are Diacrisia strigatula Walker and Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Westphal 1993). Both of these are polyphagous, feeding an a number of host plants. The genus Diacrisia (Arctiidae) includes the familiar woolly-bear caterpillars (D. virginica [Fabricius]) of the eastern United States. Diacrisia strigatula (Chinese tiger moth) is another species with wide food preferences. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf D. Austin - Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)- A food gone wild ly held that it was. More recently Langeland and Burks (1998) indicate China as its homeland. Others propose India as the place of domestication. Herklots (1972) wrote that the species was possibly Indian in origin. Westphal (1993), Van Valkenburgh and Bunyapraphatsara (2001), the Singapore Science Center (2002), Owens (2003), and Van Wyk (2005) also suggest an origin in India. Van (1998) cited both China and India. Neither the proponents of either China or India give supporting data other than the references to when I. aquatica appeared in historical Chinese documents. No archaeological records were found and molecular genetics has not been applied to this problem. There is similar doubt about whether the species is native in Africa. Ipomoea aquatica may be part of the indigenous flora, or it could have been introduced from farther east as were a number of other cultivated species (e.g., Mbida et al. 2006, Rossell 1998). Indeed, the history of the travels of Chinese mariner Cheng ho [Zheng he] during his seven expeditions of 1405-1433 note that he carried w ng c i (Lee 2002). Each of his 300 ships brought enough provisions to last the whole voyage, in case local choices were not acceptable. In addition to rice and other food that could be preserved, the ships carried huge tubs of earth on deck so that vegetables and fruits could be grown (Leo 2006). Cheng ho visited, in addition to coastal places in southern Asia, Mecca in Arabia, Egypt, Somalia, and Yemen (Lee 2002). The few references to people using water spinach for any purpose in Africa (e.g., Dalziel 1937, Haerdi 1964, Iwu 1993, Malaisse 1997, Samuelsson et al. 1992, Vaino-Mattila 2000, Williams 1949) and its complete absence from Chweya and Eyzaguirre (1999) point to a comparatively late introduction. It seems likely that Cheng ho introduced this vegetable to Africa, particularly since Yemen is where Forssk ll discovered it in the 1770s. The plants also grow in the northern parts of Australia (Figure 6). Ipomoea aquatica has been presumed to be native there (Brock 1988), but its absence from the aboriginal diet makes that problematical. The indigenous people in Australia are renowned for having eaten an amazing variety of native plants, and I. aquatica is not among them (Isaacs 1987). Payne (1956) thought the species had been introduced into Australia. Cribb and Cribb (1987) speculated that water spinach was little known until recent years when Asian immigrants began offering the herbs in oriental food shops. The plant apparently has no indigenous common name, but is called by either the English names or kangkong. All of the six data sets point to southeastern Asia as the cradle of this cultigen. Because there is the Sanskrit name kalamba for the species, it might be argued that there is linguistic support for domestication in India. From there it 133 may have spread to the other countries, but we have no direct evidence comparable to that in the western Pacific. There is, however, a long record of plant exchange between India and China. When Ji Han wrote in A.D. 304, there had already been about four centuries of overland and marine trade between these two regions (Li 1979). Ji Han listed numerous plants in southern China that are now known to have been imported Indian or western Asian natives. A few of these are Citrus medica L., Jasminum officinale L., J. sambac (L.) Aiton, Phoenix dactylifera L., and Piper nigrum L. Some of the imported plants were taken overland by the Silk Road (e.g., Phoenix dactylifera, Hu 2005), but others seem more likely to have been moved along the maritime routes. Li (1979) gives an account of trade between China, Greece, and Rome, and tells of Indian colonization of Java, Sumatra, and Cambodia reaching a climax between the third and second centuries B.C. On the other hand, China began long-distance sea travel in about the second century B.C. By the third and fourth century A.D. when Ji Han wrote, there was considerable Indian influence in Chiao-chih (modern Hanoi, Vietnam) that was part of Chiao-chou (modern Kwangtung [Guangdong] and Kwangsi [Guangxi] provinces, Hainan Island, and northern and central Vietnam). Present day Burma, Thailand, and Cambodia were called Fu-nan because of Indian presence and influence there. In spite of this history, there remains no direct evidence of trade of I. aquatica between these regions at this time. Ji Han simply said that Ipomoea aquatica was from the south. Of some plants known to be foreign in China, he said they were from Ta-ch in (land west of Chiao-Chih and Fu-nan), or that they were brought over from Western countries. He made no comment about the origin of others. Although available data make it tantalizing to suggest the that cultigens were introduced from India to China, proponents of neither Chinese nor Indian theories can be shown as wrong. Indeed, it cannot be shown that Indochina is not the place of origin, but there are fewer data for there than India and China. In view of the recent study of rice, the species may have been taken into cultivation in all these places. Londo et al. (2006) found data indicating that rice had been domesticated more than once, from different genetic lineages, in both China and India. More data are needed from additional studies to determine which, if either, of these views may be correct with I. aquatica. Acknowledgments Numerous people have graciously provided information regarding plants, literature, and names. Among these, and the area(s) they provided help, are Eugene N. Ander- www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 134 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Blench, R.M. 2003a. Hausa names for plants and trees. www.rogerblench.info/Ethnosciencedata/Hausaplantnames.pdf Blench, R.M. 2003b. Fulfulde names for plants and trees in Nigeria, Cameroun, Chad, and Niger. www.goto.glocalnet.net/maho/webresources/atlantic.html Blust, R.A. 2000. Chamorro historical phonology. Oceanic Linguistics 39:83-122. Bodner, C.C. & R.E. Gereau. 1988. A contribution to Bontoc ethnobotany. Economic Botany 42:307-369. Brock, J. 1988. Top End Native Plants. Published by author, Darwin. Bruemmer, J.H. & R. Roe. 1979. Protein extraction from water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica). Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 92:140-143. Burkill, I.H. 1953. Habits of man and the origins of the cultivated plants of the Old World. Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Session 164:12-42. Burkill, I.H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Kuala Lumpur. Burman, N.L. 1768. Flora Indica: cui accedit series zoophytorum indicorum, nec non prodromus florae capensis. Cornelius Haak/Johannes Schreuder, Leiden. Cambridge Dictionary of American English. 2006. www. dictionary.cambridge.org Capinera, J.L. 2001. Handbook of Vegetable Pests. Academic Press, San Diego. Castillo, F.S. 1982. Oraphyl-a saline mouthwash powder from Kangkong (Ipomoea reptans) leaves. Thesis, CEU. Abstract at www.pchrd.dost.gov.ph/herdinneon/. Chang, K-C. 1970. Beginnings of agriculture in the Far East. Antiquity 44:1-12. Chen, B.H. & Y.Y. Chen. 1992. Determination of carotenoids and chlorophylls in water convolvulus (Ipomoea aquatica) by liquid chromatography. Food Chemistry 45:129-134. Chen, G.F., B. Li, S.M. Chen & X.Y. Zhuo. 1986. Chih wu pao hu hsueh pao [Study on infection sources and the development of the white rust of water spinach]. Acta Phytophylacica Sinica 13:97-101. son (Chinese history), Henrik Balslev (Danish), Dorothea Bedigian (Africa), Sebsebe Demissew (eastern Africa), Eckart Eich (chemistry; Africa), Frederick and Yau-Ping Hu Essig (China), Karchi Gandhi (India), Shu-Chen Yu Hu (Chinese history), Kaoru Kitajima (Japanese), Pakshirajan Lakshminarasimhan (Indian languages), Han Lau (Malay), Christine Lockhart (Polish), Manorak Luangkhot (Thai), Andrew McDonald (Cambodia); Lytton Musselman (Africa), My Lien Nguyen (Vietnam), Cho Yeon and Robert W. Pemberton (Korea), C. Rajendran (Sanskrit), Albert M. Salamanca (Philippines), M. Sivadasan (Sanskrit), George W. Staples (Asian Convolvulaceae), Estelle Syrk (Polish), Mats Thulin (Somalia), and Valeria C. Volin (Italian), Worraruethai Pensuk (Thai). Will McClatchey provided the map, skillfully drawn by Piet Lincoln. 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An Interpretation of Rumphius s Herbarium Amboinense. Bureau of Printing, Manila. Merrill, E.D. 1939. The identity of Convolvulus reptans Linnaeus. Philippine Journal of Science 59:451-453. Miller, R.E., T.R. Buckley & P.S. Manos. 2002. An examination of the monophyly of morning glory taxa using Bayesian phylogenetic inference. Systematic Biology 52:740-753. Miller, R.E., J.A. McDonald & P.S. Manos. 2004. Systematics of Ipomoea subgenus Quamoclit (Convolvulaceae) based on ITS sequence data and a Baylesian phylogenetic analysis. American Journal of Botany 91:1208-1213. Miller, R.E., M.D. Rauscher & P.S. Manos. 1999. Phylogenetic systematics of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) based on ITS and WAXY sequences. Systematic Botany 24:209227. Monier-Williams, M. 1899. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Edited by E. Leumann & C. Cappeller, 1960. The Clarendon Press, Oxford. Motteler, L.S. 1986. 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A Malay-English Dictionary: Roman characters. Keiley & Walsh, Singapore. Wiser, C.V. 1955. The food of a Hindu village in North India. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 42:303-412. Yamaguchi, M. 1990. Asian vegetables. Pp. 387-390. in Advances in New Crops. Edited by J. Janick & J.E. Simons. Timber Press, Portland, OR. Yung, N. & N. Yao. 1985. Species List of Vascular Plants of Taiwan. The Experimental Forest, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. 140 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Appendix 1. Some common names used for Ipomoea aquatica. Where possible languages have been brought into conformation with Gordon (2005). Synonyms are in brackets. Southeastern Asian countries are delimited following Siemonsma and Piluek (1993), except for the islands of Borneo and Papua-New Guinea. Data typically do not allow separation of those two into Malaysia and Indonesia. Pacific island names follow Motteler (1986). Notes: 1. Probable cognate loan from Malay kangkong. 2. Probable cognate loan from Bengali. 3 Probable cognate loan from Sanskrit. Language Classification Family Common Names/Comments (Subfamily) Language Region Afro-Asiatic (Chadic, West) Hausa Nigeria Afro-Asiatic (Cushitic, East) Somali Somalia Austro-Asiatic (Mon-Khmer) Khmer Cambodia tr ku n [tra ku n, trocoum] Gagnepain & Courchet 1915, Ly et al. 2002, Porcher 1995-2004 Gagnepain & Courchet 1915 Gagnepain & Courchet 1915, Porcher 19952004, Van Valkenburgh & Bunyapraphatsara 2001, Nguyen pers. comm. 2006 Chopra et al. 1965 maaloole Samuelsson et al. 1992 w rw r + [awarwaro] furen gadu (=wart hog s flower) Blench 2003a, Dalziel 1937 Dalziel 1937 Information Sources Vietnamese Vietnam gi u mu ng (gi u=potherb, mu ng=funnel) rau mu ng [mu[oos]ng] (rau=rich, mu ng=funnel) Austro-Asiatic (Munda) Santali/Mundari Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Assam, Orissa, West Bengal, India; Bangladesh, Nepal Santali/Satar Nepal Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) Aceh/Atjeh Sumatra, Indonesia [Kay non, S lu/ Philippines?] Aklanon Philippines Bali/Balinese Bali, Indonesia Batatana Lauru, Solomon Islands Bentong Sulawesi, Indonesia Bis ya Philippines Bolango Sulawesi, Indonesia Bugis Maluku, Indonesia Bukitan Borneo, Indonesia Buru/Mbero/Boeroe Maluku, Indonesia Chamorro Guam, Marianas islands rumpun kangkong, tangkong [tangk ng, tangkung]1 kangkong1 pangpong [pangpoeng] kangko1 kangkong, tangkong [tangk ng, tangkung] kanto1 naniri kangkong1 kangko1 utango1 kankong [cancon, kankan]1 Van Valkenburgh & Bunyapraphatsara 2001 Heyne 1927 Van Ooststroom & Hoogland 1953 Blust 2000, Stone 1970 1 1 karmira2 (=potherb) karmi2 (=potherb) Manandhar 2002 Van Ooststroom & Hoogland 1953 Herklots 1972, Kays & Dias 1996, Van Ooststroom 1940 Heyne 1927 McClatchey 2005 Heyne 1927 Herklots 1972, Kays & Dias 1996, Van Ooststroom 1940 Heyne 1927 sisu lumi (sisu=sweet potato, I. batatas) www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf D. Austin - Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)- A food gone wild Language Classification Family Common Names/Comments (Subfamily) Language Region Chuukese Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia Fijian Fiji seeri [seri, aseri] luve ni tombithi, ndrinikava, ota karisa [ota karisi], wa kumala (kumara=sweet potato, I. batatas) kangko1 panangoi 1 141 Information Sources Manner & Mallon 1989, PIER 2005 Smith 1991 Gorontalo Sulawesi, Indonesia Heyne 1927 sajor [sajoha] s riokang [sariokang] Ilokano/Il ko Philippines bal g g [balangeg] Bodner & Gereau 1988, Porcher 1995-2004, Van Ooststroom 1940 Porcher 1995-2004, Van Ooststroom 1940 Herklots 1972, Kays & Dias 1996, Van Ooststroom 1940 Burkill 1966 Thaman 1987 Van Ooststroom 1940 Van Ooststroom 1940 Heyne 1927 Rumphius 1741-1750, Van Ooststroom 1940 Deroin 2001 Blust 2000, Herklots 1972, Kays & Dias 1996, Van Ooststroom 1940, Rumphius 1741-1750, Van Ooststroom 1940 Heyne 1927 Heyne 1927 Van Ooststroom 1940 Heyne 1927 Heyne 1927 Thaman et al. 1994 Heyne 1927, Van Ooststroom 1940 Heyne 1927 Fosberg et al. 1980 1 galatgat kangkong, tangkong [tangk ng, tangkung]1 Javanese Java, Indonesia Kiribati Kiribati Kubu/Djambi Sumatra, Indonesia Lembak Lingga, Indonesia Madura/Madurese Java, Indonesia Makasar Maluku, Indonesia Malagasy Madagascar Malay Malaysia kangkong1 te ruku (historically generic for Ipomoea, now for this recent introduction), te kang kong1 daoen deli dili di sajoran lalap, for leaves kangkoe ng , lalidih 1 tanidri ialanda (also used for I. pes-caprae) kang kong [kangkong, cangong] Rumphius (1741-1750) said that kangkong means it is restless. A dryland cultigen is known as kangkong puteh in Singapore sajor kankong [sayor cancong]1 Rumphius noted that the people of Ambon had no name for it but used Malay kangkong kingkoi1 [kongkia] oetangko1 1 Malay Maluku, Indonesia Maluku Maluku, Indonesia Maluku/Kajeli Maluku, Indonesia Minangkabau Sumatra, Indonesia kalajau Mongondow Sulawesi, Indonesia Nauruan Nauru Nusalaut/Tengah Maluku, Indonesia Nusalaut/Tengah Maluku, Indonesia Palauan/Belau Belau roempoen sajor [sajoha] lorenzo lar [lara, lara ] nggango dano [ango dano, kako dano, dialectic]1 kangkum [kankum]1 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 142 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Information Sources Heyne 1927 Herklots 1972, Kays & Dias 1996, Van Ooststroom 1940 Manner & Mallon 1989, PIER 2005 McCormack 2004 ex PIER 2005 McClatchey 2005 Herklots 1972, Kays & Dias 1996, Van Ooststroom 1940 Heyne 1927 Van Ooststroom 1940 1 Language Classification Family Common Names/Comments (Subfamily) Language Region Pamona/Bare`e Maluku, Indonesia [B lok, Sulu?] Pamp ngan Philippines Puluwatese Puluwat, Federated States of Micronesia Rarotongan Cook Islands Ririo Lauru Island, Solomon Islands [B lok, Sulu?] Tag log Philippines Tonsawang Sulawesi, Indonesia Yapese Yap, Micronesian islands Uncertain language Malaysia Uncertain language Malaysia Uncertain language New Caledonia Uncertain language Sumatra, Indonesia Creole Sranan? [Creole Dutch] Suriname dagoeblad (dagoe=dog, blad=leaf) Tok pisin Papua-New Guinea Dravidian (Tamil-Malayalam) Malayalam Kerala, India Tamil Tamilnadu and neighboring states, India ballel (an error for vallem=water) Currently no known common name. karkarei valli, [sarkarei-valli, vallaikirai, vellai k rai, walai k rai] (karkarei=potherb, valli=white) koilangu (kilanga=tuber) nir-kolmi (nir=stream, kolmi=potherb) 3 tatanggo1 kangk ng [cancong, kangkung]1 seeri [seri, aseri] rukau taviri sisu lum (sisu= sweet potato, I. batatas) kangk ng [cancong, kangkung]1 panangoi1 pintoer kangkong darat paya kang koung1 kangku ng1, kalayan, lalidih Merlin et al. 1996 Van Ooststroom & Hoogland 1953 Heine 1984 Burkill 1966 Stephen 1978 French 1986 Rheede 1692, Nicolson et al. 1988 Chopra et al. 1965, Watt 1889 [1972] Chopra et al. 1965 kango, kangkong 1 Dravidian (Telugu) Telugu Andhra Pradesh and neighboring states, India thota-kura [thota-kura, tootie-kura, tutikura] (t ti=garden, k ra=potherb) Chopra et al. 1965, Kapoor & Kapoor 1980, Roxburgh 1824, Watt 1889 [1972], Tirhumala pers. comm. 2006 Kays & Dias 1996, Balslev pers. comm. 2006 Kays & Dias 1996 Kays & Dias 1996, Porcher 1995-2004 Indo-European (Germanic) Danish Denmark Dutch Holland English United Kingdom gladgr ntsag (glad=happy, gr ntsag=potherb), kangkong1 kangkong1 Chinese water/tropical spinach, swamp morning glory, water convolvulus [Ipomoea], water sweet potato, swamp cabbage, kangkong1 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf D. Austin - Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)- A food gone wild Language Classification Family Common Names/Comments (Subfamily) Language Region German Germany Sumpf-Trichterwinde (=swamp funnel bindweed) Wasserspinat (=water spinach) Indo-European (Indo-Iranian) Bengali Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, India; Bangladesh kalmi sag [kalmi-s k, kulmi-sag] (kalmi=name of plant, sag=potherb) nalike (=stream) patuasag [patu-shaka, patun-saga] (patua=leaf, sag=potherb) Gujarati Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, India; Bangladesh Hindi Andhra Predesh, Bihar, Delhi, Himachal, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, India n lichi baji [n lichi bhaji] (nalichi=near stream, baji=potherb) patuasag [patu-shaka, patun-saga] (patua=leaf, sag=potherb) kalmi sag [kalmisag, kalmi-s g] klamai saaga, (kalmi=name of plant, sag=potherb), kalmi [karmi] This is an element of the Unani herbal healers in India. pui-sag (pui=?, sag=potherb) Hindi Bihar, Delhi, Himachal, patuasag [patu-shaka, patun-saga] Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, (patua=leaf, sag=potherb) Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, India Marathi Maharashtra and adjacent states, India Nepali Nepal Panjabi, Eastern Delhi, Haryana, Jammu, Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan; Bangladesh Panjabi, Western Pakistan, mainly Punjab, India Sanskrit India nadi-shaka (nadi=stream, shaka=potherb) kalmi sag [kalaamil saag, kulum sag] (kalmi=name of plant, sag=potherb) ganthian n ri [n li] (=stream) ganthian n ri [n li] (=stream) kalamba [kaDamba, kalambi, kulumbee] klaamba (ka=water, alamba=supported, suspended) Variations noted in text. Chopra et al. 1965, Kapoor & Kapoor 1980, Malten 1997, Roxburgh 1824, Watt 1889 [1972], Sivadasan & Rajendran pers. comm. 2006 Watt 1889 [1972] Manandhar 2002 Chopra et al. 1965 Chopra et al. 1965, Manandhar 2002 Chopra et al. 1965, Watt 1889 [1972] Chopra et al. 1965 Watt 1889 [1972], Chopra et al. 1965 Chopra et al. 1965 Information Sources Kays & Dias 1996 Porcher 1995-2004 143 Chopra et al. 1965, Kays & Dias 1996, Islam et al. 2004, Kapoor & Kapoor 1980, Patnalk 1976, Watt 1889 [1972], Wiser 1955 Lakshminarasimhan pers. comm. 2006 Chopra et al. 1965 Austin & Ghazanfar 1979, Chopra et al. 1965, Watt 1889 [1972], Sinhalese Sri Lanka Tharu Nepal language not specified Uttar Pradesh Indo-European (Italic) French France kan-kun1 kramuwan n ri (=stream) liseron d eau (=water vine), patate aquatique (=aquatic potato) Kays & Dias 1996, Heine 1984 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 144 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Information Sources Kays & Dias 1996, Volin pers. comm. 2006 Rumphius 1741-1750 1 Language Classification Family Common Names/Comments (Subfamily) Language Region Italian Italy Latin Ambon Portuguese Portugal Spanish Spain patate aquatica (=aquatic potato), vellucchio d acqua (=water twiner) olus-vagum (=wandering on mud) batata aquatica (=water potato), cancon batatilla acuatica (=little water potato), boniato de agua (=water sweet potato), camotillo (=little sweet potato), espinaca aqu tica (=water spinach, Cuba) wilec wodny (wilec=bindweed, wodny=water) Kays & Dias 1996 Kays & Dias 1996, Ly et al. 2002 Indo-European (Slavic) Polish Poland Isolated Japanese Japan asagaona (comparison to asa gao , , Ipomoea nil ) kankon1, ku-shin-sai (loan from Chinese kong xin cai ) y -sai , [yousai] (=western potherb) Japanese Japan, Okinawa en-sai [enn-che, untchie] [ ] (loan from Chinese w ng c i) Arrived via Okinawa & Kyushu. kong sim chae (loan from Chinese kong xin cai ) mul si keum ch i ( mul=water, si keum ch i=spinach; translation of English name) Plants are not grown nor eaten in temperate Korea Niger-Congo (Altantic-Congo) Fulfulde/Fulani Nigeria Niger-Congo (Mande) Mende Sierra Leone Sino-Tibetan (Chinese) Cantonese Chinese, China wung ts ai [ong ts ai, ungtsai, ong choy, ong choi, ohng choy, nung choi, ung tsoi, yong ts ai, yung ts ai] (=pitcher potherb) t ung ts ai [tung tsoi, tung choy] tong sin tsai [toongsintsai, hung sam choi] ong tsai [hung choi] wu hsin ts ai, ong tung tsoi (=pitcher hollow [macaroni] potherb) Also, see discussion under Mandarin below. Edie & Hoe 1969, Fang & Staples 1995, Herklots 1972, Hu 2005, Irving 1995-2006, Kays & Dias 1996, Porcher 1995-2004, Roi 1955 kp kp i (=creeper) Dalziel 1937 delbol, laylayduuji [lailai duji] Blench 2003b, Dalziel 1937 Kitajima pers. comm. 2006 Kays & Dias 1996, Walker 1976 Kays & Dias 1996, Walker 1976 Staples & Herbst 2005 Porcher 1995-2004, Pemberton pers. comm. 2006 Kays & Dias 1996, Walker 1976 Gotfredsen 2006, Lockhart & Syrk pers. comm. 2006 Korean Korea www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf D. Austin - Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica)- A food gone wild Language Classification Family Common Names/Comments (Subfamily) Language Region Mandarin Chinese China w ng c i (=buried propagule potherb) teng cai (=climbing/vine herb) or teng-teng cai; tong cai (=hollow [macaroni] potherb),kong xin cai (=empty heart potherb) kong cai (=empty potherb) wu xin cai (=without heart potherb) cao coi (=grass herb) The characters for Mandarin w ng ( ) & Cantonese ong ( ), although different, share some basic elements. The first ( ) means to bury propagules under the soil. The other ( ) refers to pottery with a closed cover, a jar, vessel, or pitcher. Mathews (1944) says that it was at one time a jar for the ashes of the dead. The pinyin is so simplified that only the bottom of is recognizable. Aquatic cultigen: shu w ng c i (=water buried propagule potherb); dryland cultigen: h n w ng c i (=dry [drought] buried propagule potherb) no do kulum sag (kulum=potherb, sag=pond)2 pak bung phak bong, , (phak=potherb, bung=caterpiller s), pak bong phak bong, (phak=potherb, bong=caterpiller s), b ngz (=bong?) The insect larvae belong to at least three families, Arctiidae, Lamantriidae, & Lasiocampidae. kamchon [kamchong] (=spread?) pak bung, [pak boong, paag boong, phak bung] (phak=potherb, bung=caterpiller s) The word bung also means basket, but that is because it is applied to one whose construction resembles lepidopteran larvae. Cultivars include pak boong chin (chin=piece; white stem group), and bai phai (bai=leaf, phai=bamboo; bamboo leaf white stem group) phak thot yot (thot=king?, yot=royalty?) Trans-New Guinea Marind New Guinea, Indonesia beehob oetangko 1 145 Information Sources Edie & Hoe 1969, Fang & Staples 1995, Herklots 1972, Hu 2005, Irving 1995-2006, Kays & Dias 1996, Porcher 1995-2004, Roi 1955 Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) Karen Thailand; Burma Parbate Nepal Tai-Kadai Laotian Laos Porcher 1995-2004, Van Valkenburgh & Bunyapraphatsara 2001, McClatchey pers. comm. 2006, Aoy Pensuk pers. comm. 2006/ Van Valkenburgh & Bunyapraphatsara 2001 Porcher 1995-2004, Smitinand 1979 Aoy Pensuk pers. comm. 2006 Watt 1889 [1972] Thai Shan Mae Hong Son, NW Thailand; SE region, Burma Thai Thailand Heyne 1927 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf 146 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Information Sources Language Classification Family Common Names/Comments (Subfamily) Language Region West Papuan Galela Halmahera, Indonesia Makian Halmahera, Indonesia Tidore Tidore, Indonesia Uncertain Language? language? Ghana ga k k le biak takako [tanggo]1 takako [tanggo] kako1 takako [tanggo]1 1 Heyne 1927 Dalziel 1937 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol5/i1547-3465-05-123.pdf

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