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Reading Independent of CD-ROM Storybooks: Measuring Comprehension With Oral Retellings Cathy J. Pearman CD-ROM storybooks aid comprehension by providing a multisensory reading experience. O ur society s definition of literacy changes as new technologies for acquiring information are developed. We once thought people were literate if they could read a little and write their names. As accessibility to public schools increased, it became the societal standard in the United States that the majority of people could read. Today, new communication technologies are being developed at an almost overwhelming pace, and these changes affect not only literacy instruction but also our definition of literacy itself. The reason for these changes lies in the transition now in progress from traditional, print-based literacy to electronic representations of text (McKenna, Reinking, Labbo, & Kieffer, 1999, p. 111). We may believe there are no fundamental differences in the reading of electronic text because processes such as word recognition, prior knowledge connections, and meaning construction are present regardless of the medium; however, there may be differences between print and electronic text that change the nature of reading (McKenna et al., 1999) One form of electronic text for use with beginning readers is CD-ROM storybooks. Many of these storybooks contain options that support readers by allowing them to have the entire story read by the computer or to highlight a word, sentence, or phrase and have the computer pronounce the highlighted text. These features reduce the burden of decoding for the reader so more energy and attention can be applied toward processing meaning for comprehension. This computer pronunciation of text provides readers with the scaffolding needed to read materials closer to their listening comprehension level (Reinking, 1997). CDROM storybooks often preserve the familiar story grammar of traditionally printed texts while adding multisensory features such as audio support, animations, and video clips that add layers of meaning not found in traditional texts (McNabb, 1998). In addition, the inclusion of sound effects in CD-ROM storybooks facilitates reader comprehension by reflecting text action and signaling the mood of the story (Labbo, 2000; Pearman & Lefever-Davis, 2006). These components help readers construct meaning and expand schemata. According to Reinking and Schreiner (1985), a significant benefit of CD-ROM storybooks is the increased learner control as readers manipulate the hypertext options to suit their particular needs. This control allows learners to personalize the reading experience by selecting the amount of support needed to develop or reinforce their schemata. One of the most important areas to study with regard to CD-ROM storybooks is whether hypertext options lead to gains in comprehension and learning. Regardless of the text medium, the purpose of reading is to comprehend a written message. Comprehension is, in part, dependent upon the reader s prior knowledge and its activation as the author s words are read. During comprehension, readers associate the new information communicated by the text to information already in their minds (Tompkins, 2006). Opportunities for interacting with traditional print texts are restricted by their unilinear composition, and static traditional texts rely heavily on the reader s internal strategies to activate prior knowledge. Traditional texts are passive and cannot respond to individual readers. Reading CD-ROM storybooks, however, may 594 The Reading Teacher, 61(8), pp. 594 602 DOI:10.1598/RT.61.8.1 2008 International Reading Association ISSN: 0034-0561 print / 1936-2714 online involve a literal interaction between the reader and the text (Reinking, 1992). Based on a reader s responses or behaviors, CD-ROM storybooks can provide adaptations and immediate feedback during the act of reading. Software programs offer a greater repertoire of comprehension cues and a greater context for the story than traditionally printed texts (Pearman & Lefever-Davis, 2006; Reinking, 1988). Interactive CDROM storybooks enable readers with diverse background experiences and varying reading levels to take part in a learning environment in which numerous individual needs can be addressed (Chu, 1995). However, the same electronic text features that enhance context and activate prior knowledge may be detrimental to student comprehension in the long run by allowing students to use the features without developing competency in detecting context indicators and learning to consciously make connections between text and their own prior knowledge. Many of the software programs allow students to have words, sentences, pages, or the entire book read to them. Many also play music, contain animations, or recite the names of objects as they are selected. Some researchers have flagged these features as possible concerns (Labbo et al., 2003; Lewin, 1996). Readers may rely on the computer to decode words or to read the story rather than develop their own abilities. Also, if the reader does not ask for help, the computer does not offer it or provide instruction in reading strategies. Birkerts (1995) voiced concerns that hypertext features allowing readers to explore options leads to superficial learning. Traditional texts encourage the reader to think critically and to bring analytical skills to bear to gain meaning while a hypertext environment fosters reliance on the technology to gain understanding. In a previous study, I found this type of superficial learning exhibited by young readers who requested the pronunciation or definition of the same word over and over without acquiring the ability to recognize the word when next it appeared in the story (Lefever-Davis & Pearman, 2005). In addition, many CD-ROM storybooks contain automatic animations, sound effects, and hot spots that activate cued animations. Lewis and Ashton (1999) reported that students observed in Project Literacy Instruction Through Technology spent approximately 65% of their reading time engaged in nonreading activities such as activating hotspots in graphics and playing games contained within the computer pro- grams. Trushell, Maitland, and Burrell (2003) found that while graphic animations and sound effects could provide contextual support for readers by providing supplemental information, those that do not further the storyline or reinforce story events negatively affect readers ability to recall story events. While a meta-analysis of the research shows an overall positive effect for computer-assisted learning (Butzin, 2001), I found few studies that investigate the relationship between CD-ROM storybooks and reading comprehension. Whereas interactive, CD-ROM storybooks are designed to aid comprehension acquisition and lessen decoding difficulties for beginning readers, most of the current research has focused on students 8 years of age or older who were experiencing difficulty mastering the reading process in areas such as sight words or text difficulty, which are known to affect reading comprehension (Leu, 2002). However, Matthew (1996, 1997) and Doty, Popplewell, and Byers (2001) directly attempted to investigate the relationship of comprehension and CDROM storybooks. Matthew found significant increases in scores for students using CD-ROM storybooks compared with students using traditional texts when measuring comprehension by story retelling; however, Doty et al. (2001) refuted these findings. They found no statistical difference in student comprehension scores between the electronic and traditional text formats. There is limited research that compares reading interactive, electronic texts on CD-ROM and traditional print texts. As technology brings changes and advances in the way text is presented, it is necessary to determine the effects of the different presentation modes on readers comprehension. The need for additional research is promoted by several entities. The National Reading Panel determined that relatively few studies have explored computer technology and reading instruction (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000). This information, considered with the recommendation of the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE; 2002) that students demonstrate an understanding of the nature and operation of technology as well as develop positive attitudes toward technology and using technology to enhance learning, suggests more research be conducted in this area. In addition, a position statement from the International Reading Association (2002) called for an intensive program of research on Independent Reading of CD-ROM Storybooks: Measuring Comprehension With Oral Retellings 595 literacy and technology issues that will enable us to better understand the rapid changes taking place in the nature of literacy and literacy instruction (p. 2). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether young students with varying degrees of reading proficiency would score higher on an oral retelling when provided with text at their reading level presented via CD-ROM storybook format rather than a traditional print format. Method Site and Participants The participants were second-grade students from an elementary school in a large rural school district in the southern United States. Twenty-five of the 94 students were receiving services from the school s Englishlanguage learner (ELL) program. It was noted that language might be a barrier to any measurement of reading comprehension for these students. Because this study focused on independent reading, supports such as vocabulary instruction and prior knowledge activation were not primary components. Therefore, this study was delimited to students who were not receiving services from the school s ELL program. Of the 94 second graders, 69 were eligible to be considered for this study. Of these, 54 students returned signed permission letters from their parents for a return rate of 78%. This delimited sample comprised 29 males and 25 females. By ethnicity, 32 were white, 1 was black, 21 were Hispanic, and 0 were classified as other. All students who regularly attended the selected elementary school had been exposed to the use of computers primarily for skill building and vocabulary practice a minimum of once a week during lab time since kindergarten. tribution across reading levels along with the percentage of students in each reading level that had access to a computer outside of school. It should be noted that a much smaller percentage of students in the low reading group had access to a computer outside of school, and adjustments were not made by the school district to allow for the possibility that limited computer experience might be a factor when using a computer adaptive testing instrument for reading-group placement. The dependent variable, comprehension scores based on oral retelling, was derived from Morrow s (1986) 10-Point Scale (Figure 1). Materials Traditional Print Texts. The books chosen for this study were leveled using a classification system developed by Fountas and Pinnell (1999). Two titles, available in both traditional and electronic formats, were selected for each reading level. Mud Puddle and Moving Gives Me a Stomachache were selected as the texts for students reading in the low group while Thomas Snowsuit and The Paper Bag Princess were the texts used for students reading at the medium level. Heather Hits Her First Home Run and A Long Hard Day on the Ranch were chosen as the texts for students performing at the higher reading level. Electronic Texts. Discis Books, produced by Discis Knowledge Research Incorporated, were used as the electronic texts in this study. Interactive, CD-ROM storybooks of the same titles and by the same authors as the traditional print texts were used in order to control for the nuisance variable of text difficulty. All CD-ROM storybooks contained pronunciations, graphics, sound effects, object labels, and definitions that could be accessed with a click of the mouse. Texts also provided students with the option of highlighting words or sentences to be pronounced by the computer. While the interactive, CD-ROM storybooks had the capability of reading the entire story to the student, I deactivated the total narration option for the purposes of this study. Because my intention was to assess reading comprehension during independent reading, it was desirable that students actually read the book themselves rather than listen to the book as it was read to them. Different companies produce CD-ROM storybooks with their own distinctive combination of features. Discis Books use the same pictures as the print version, and moving the cursor over the pictures and Instrumentation I gathered information on the reading level of individual students from their classroom teacher who based this information on the STAR Early Literacy computeradaptive diagnostic assessment. Based on these reading-level scores, classroom teachers designated students as low, medium, or high readers. These categories helped ensure students would be reading texts as close to their developmental reading ability as could be accomplished given the limited availability of CD-ROM storybooks. Table 1 shows the sample dis- 596 The Reading Teacher Vol. 61, No. 8 May 2008 clicking the mouse activates hotspots that cause a pop-up label to appear beside the object followed by the pronunciation. Having the label next to the object may foster student vocabulary development as they see the object, see the word, and hear the pronunciation. Within the text, students can highlight words, phrases, or sentences to be read by the computer. A single mouse click yields a pronunciation while a double mouse click gives a pronunciation spoken in syllables. If the mouse button is held down, students will hear the word pronounced and defined Table 1 Sample Distributed Across Reading Group Levels High (19) Male Female White Hispanic Black Computer 12 7 16 3 0 75% Medium (15) 7 8 12 3 0 67% Low (20) 10 10 4 15 1 25% Figure 1 Story Retelling Analysis Morrow s 10-Point Scale Student s name: ___________________________________________ Date: ___________ Title of story: ____________________________________________________________ General directions: Place a 1 next to each element if the child includes it in his or her presentation. Credit gist as well as obvious recall. Characters and setting A. Begins story with an introduction B. Names main character(s) C. Number of other characters named D. Actual number of other characters E. Score for other characters (C/D) F. Includes statement about time and/or place Theme Refers to main character s primary goal or problem to be resolved Plot episodes A. Number of episodes recalled B. Number of episodes in story C. Score for plot episodes (A/B) Resolution A. Names the problem solution/goal attainment B. Ends story Sequence Retells story in structural order: setting, theme, plot episodes, resolutions (Score 2 for correct order, 1 for partial, 0 for none) Highest score possible Comments: (10) ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ Child s score ______ Note. From Morrow (1986). Copyright permission obtained from Taylor and Francis. Independent Reading of CD-ROM Storybooks: Measuring Comprehension With Oral Retellings 597 in context. When students click on a word, the word is automatically added to a recall list. Students can review the words in this list by clicking on them for a pronunciation. Procedure Each student read a traditional print text and a CD-ROM storybook at their developmental reading level. The order of the text medium presentation was randomized independently for each student. Randomization was accomplished by having the even-numbered students on the master list of students in each developmental reading group read the traditional print text first. Odd-numbered students read the CD-ROM storybook first. In addition, presentation of the two book titles was alternated in their electronic and traditional print form to control for any differences in book difficulty. For example, within each developmental reading level the first student read Electronic Text A and Traditional Text B. The next student read Electronic Text B and Traditional Text A. Table 2 shows an example of the randomization process. Students did not read both text formats in the same session. Sessions were separated by two to five days with the majority of students having an interval of three days. As well, the students did not have access to either the print or electronic versions of the stories unless I was present. All students were audiotaped during their oral retelling of both text formats. would read and then retell the story. This meant they would tell what the story was about and what they remembered from the story. Students read the traditional print text either silently or aloud depending on their personal preference. Because this study was concerned with independent reading, students were encouraged to read the texts in the manner they would actually read them during personal use. Upon completion of the reading, students performed an oral retelling following the cues of Tell me about the story or Can you tell me the story that you just read? Students who read aloud were prompted with Pretend you are telling this story to your friend that has never read it before. What will you tell them? The reason for instructing students to retell the story as if their friend had never heard it before was that, in the case of oral reading, students might retell less information because they knew I had just heard the story (Leslie, 1993). If students stopped during the retelling, they were prompted with Can you tell me more? or What happened next? No prompts were given during the retelling that assisted students with content. Reading of Electronic Texts Students were asked whether they had access to a computer outside of school and were questioned about personal computer use to determine how experienced they were at manipulating the hypertext environment. Before students read the story, I demonstrated how one click of the mouse would provide the pronunciation of a word and how highlighting words would enable them to hear sentences or phrases. I showed students how to turn the pages of the book by using the mouse and how to activate animations and sound effects. Students were asked if the directions were clear; if necessary, directions were repeated. Following the same pattern as used for traditional texts, the title of the story was discussed to build rapport and students were told they would read, and then retell, the story. This meant they would tell what the story was about and what they remembered from the story. As with the traditional print texts, students were allowed to read silently or orally depending on their personal preference. Upon completion of the reading, students gave an oral retelling following the cues described in the previous section. As with the traditional text retellings, prompts were used to help the Reading of Traditional Print Texts The title of the story was discussed for a few minutes in order to build rapport. Students were told they Table 2 Example of Randomization Process Level: high Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 First retelling Electronic Text A Traditional Text A Electronic Text B Traditional Text B Electronic Text A Traditional Text A Electronic Text B Traditional Text B Second retelling Traditional Text B Electronic Text B Traditional Text A Electronic Text A Traditional Text B Electronic Text B Traditional Text A Electronic Text A 598 The Reading Teacher Vol. 61, No. 8 May 2008 students should they prematurely stop but not to assist students with content. Data Collection Data were collected over a period of 20 days. The order in which the two reading treatments was presented was randomized independently for each student, and the order of the text titles and text formats was alternated within each reading level. Each session lasted approximately 15 to 30 minutes, and field were notes taken to record student behaviors during the reading of both text formats. Information was also gathered on whether students had access to a computer outside of school. Upon completion of reading, students gave an oral retelling. I chose oral retelling as an assessment measure rather than written retelling because of the students ages and grade level. It was not desirable for the ability of the students to reconstruct the story in their own words to be confounded by their inability to write words or to convey their thoughts in writing. Student retellings were audiotaped for later scoring by independent raters. Both raters were trained in the general use of Morrow s (1986) 10-Point Scale. A second training session was held to determine specific criteria for the titles selected for the study and to review Morrow s 10-Point Scale. The correlation between raters was .84. After determining the correlation, the raters listened to the audiotapes again and reached a consensus on retellings scored differently. Analyses and Discussion Overall Comprehension A dependent samples t-test at the .05 level of significance yielded t (53) = 2.98, p < .004, which shows mean retelling scores were significantly higher for students after reading electronic texts. These results are in agreement with earlier findings by Matthew (1996, 1997). However, the findings of this study are inconsistent with a study conducted by Doty (1999). Doty found no significant difference in mean scores for oral retellings between the text media of electronic and traditional print but did find that students were interested in the illustrations and story, regardless of text format. There are differences in Doty s (1999) study and this study that may explain the inconsistency in the findings. Doty had an experimental group read the electronic text and a control group read the same story in a traditional text. Students reading in the traditional group were allowed to ask for help and clarification during reading in order to replicate the electronic-text reading group as closely as possible. Doty then analyzed her data using an Analysis of Covariance to statistically control for variability in initial reading levels. This study was concerned with whether there was a difference in independent reading comprehension for electronic and traditional text formats. Students were instructed to read the texts, both electronic and traditional, in the manner they were accustomed to reading when they were reading on their own. The participants were not encouraged to seek assistance from me in order to replicate independent reading conditions. The study was not designed to make the reading of the traditional text as similar to the reading of the electronic text as possible because my focus was whether the format of the two types of text contributed to students independent reading comprehension. In addition, this study has as its second research question whether CD-ROM storybooks are beneficial for different levels of reading proficiency. Rather than use an experimental group and a control group, I used a repeated measures design that controlled for the individual differences germane to each reader. I agree with Doty s (1999) statement that students were interested in the illustrations and story in both text formats and that rich, detailed illustrations present in both formats may have made it possible for students to retell the story with some degree of accuracy through the illustrations. However, the electronic text format may have proven more engaging for some students. Four students in the study were identified as having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. One student was identified as a member of the high reading group, one was a member of the medium reading group, and two were part of the low reading group. When these students were reading the traditional print text, they often flipped backward and forward in the book, looked around the room for long periods of time, traced pictures with their fingers, and tried to hold conversations with me. Contrary to both my expectations and the findings of the Project Literacy Instruction Through Technology, these students were more Independent Reading of CD-ROM Storybooks: Measuring Comprehension With Oral Retellings 599 engaged when reading CD-ROM storybooks. They clicked on words and pictures but kept their attention on the text instead of looking around the room. They often followed the text with the cursor as they read and swirled the cursor around as they moved it down to turn the page. Throughout these actions, their attention remained on the CD-ROM storybook. It is possible these four students were more focused on the text because the hotspots contained within the Discis books activated only pronunciations or definitions rather than games or animations as in those used for Project Literacy Instruction Through Technology. None of the four scored above an 8.5 on either of the retellings, but with the CD-ROM storybooks they were seeing and hearing the words being pronounced as opposed to the traditional text that was static unless the student applied reading strategies. CD-ROM storybooks integrate sound effects and animations to provide rich context that reinforces vocabulary and concepts (Labbo, 2000; Pearman & Lefever-Davis, 2006; Reinking & ChanLin, 1994). An example of this is when a student told me he knew something was going to happen on the page because of the music. The music was providing a cue, or context, that he needed to focus his attention on what was going to happen in the story. This ability of CD-ROM storybooks to provide context may have aided students in understanding the setting of the story. Fortyfive of the students discussed the setting of the story after reading CD-ROM storybooks while only 28 mentioned the setting after reading the traditional text. Field notes from observations of students while they read reflect that 13 students who did not read the traditional text aloud did so with the electronic text. Fourteen students followed the text with the cursor during the reading of the electronic text but did not follow the text with their finger while reading the traditional text. My interpretation of these actions is that the electronic text medium was more physically demanding for students to read, causing them to revert to a more basic level of reading skills and strategies. Whether this was due to format or unfamiliarity would be a topic for future research. Varying Degrees of Reading Proficiency Data for each of the reading proficiency levels of high, medium, and low were analyzed using a dependent samples t-test at the .05 level of significance to deter- mine if the electronic text format was more beneficial for one reading level than the other. This analysis failed to reveal a significant difference between mean scores on oral retellings observed in the two text formats for the reading proficiency levels of high and medium [high: t (18) = 1.59; p < .129; medium: t (14) = 1.16; p < .266]. The analysis of data for the low reading proficiency level revealed a significant difference between mean scores on oral retellings observed in the two text formats: t (19) = 2.31; p < .032. Retelling scores were significantly higher for the electronic text format (M = 5.88, SD = 2.55) than for the traditional print format (M = 4.85, SD = 2.27). Beginning readers or students that are struggling with developing reading skills may benefit from having unknown words immediately pronounced for them by the computer. To comprehend, readers need to be able to recognize many words in the text with a degree of automaticity. The rationale behind this concept is that young learners can only attend to one difficult task at any given time, so readers who must devote considerable time and energy to decoding have little or no attention left to direct toward processing meaning in order to gain comprehension (Tompkins, 2006). The computer-generated pronunciations remove this burden of decoding for less skillful readers and allow them to concentrate on constructing meaning from the text. The Discis books used in this study provided not only word pronunciations but also contextual definitions. Tompkins described knowledge of vocabulary as one of the most critical factors in understanding both spoken and written communication. Reinking and Schreiner (1985) and Labbo (2000) believed the degree of reader control found in CDROM storybooks might also be of benefit to beginning or struggling readers needing individualized assistance. Students target words and phrases they selfselect as problem areas to be pronounced by the computer. Assistance can be requested repeatedly for the same words without the computer becoming impatient or making judgments about the child s ability. Students can also follow the model of the computer pronunciations through echo reading while being supported by the meaningful context within a story (Matthew, 1996). I particularly noted this behavior in the low proficiency-level reading group. Many students would request and repeat the computer pronun- 600 The Reading Teacher Vol. 61, No. 8 May 2008 ciation of words or phrases several times before continuing reading. Order of Retellings Confounding variables that may have been inherent in this study were presentation of text medium and differences in book difficulty. Text format presentation was randomized independently for each student, and text titles were counterbalanced to control for any differences in book difficulty. In addition to these variables, it was possible that an experience effect might be present between the first and second retellings. A dependent samples t-test failed to reveal a significant difference between mean scores on the first and second oral retellings: t (53) = .42, p < .674. Access to Computer Students were asked if they had access to a computer outside of school prior to reading the CD-ROM storybooks. It was found that 30 students had access to a computer outside of school. When computer access was broken down into reading levels, it was found that 15 students in the high group, 10 students in the medium group, and 5 students in the low group had access to a computer outside of school. Because students had been placed in the reading groups of high, medium, or low by their classroom teachers based on a diagnostic test administered via computer, it was prudent to determine if access to a computer outside of school affected the mean oral retelling scores. A one-way ANOVA with one betweengroups factor was used to determine if access to a computer outside of school had a significant impact on oral retelling scores for the electronic text medium. This analysis failed to reveal a significant effect for access to a computer outside of school: F (1, 52) = .89, p = .35. Implications Evidence from this study indicates that interactive, CDROM storybooks may facilitate reading comprehension for second-grade students who are struggling with developing reading skills and strategies. Therefore, the use of CD-ROM storybooks in the classroom as part of a reading instruction program, literacy center, or for independent reading time could be beneficial for young readers. CD-ROM storybooks decrease or elim- inate the need for students to focus on decoding, allowing them to concentrate on constructing meaning from text. Consequently, they would be valuable tools for allowing struggling readers to familiarize themselves with texts that are eventually to be read and discussed in the classroom in a whole-group situation. This gives struggling readers the benefit of hearing the story and working with the vocabulary words before engaging in discussions with their more proficiently reading peers. In addition to word pronunciations, the Discis books used in this study provided contextual definitions of words in the story. Research conducted by Reinking and Rickman (1990) suggested that an increased focus on words that students choose as challenging can improve a reader s vocabulary knowledge, which may lead to an increase in comprehension. CD-ROM storybooks would be beneficial in place of audiobooks; the added context of illustrations and the ready availability of definitions would support the vocabulary acquisition of struggling readers. The interactive nature of CD-ROM storybooks affords students more control over their learning environment. Students can individualize their reading experience by self-selecting the words, phrases, and definitions with which they need assistance. The video, audio, and animations present in CD-ROM storybooks may help educators meet the responsibility of providing additional support to struggling readers during independent reading (Leu, 1997). The computer offers this assistance numerous times without becoming impatient or taking instructional time away from other students. It would be difficult for a single educator to provide this level of assistance to each student throughout the day (Lally, 2001). The International Reading Association (2002) has discussed the rapid changes occurring in literacy due to technological advances. Regardless of the text medium, the purpose of reading will remain: to comprehend a written message. CD-ROM storybooks aid comprehension by providing a multisensory reading experience with a varied collection of tools for acquiring and understanding information that cannot be replicated by static, traditional texts. 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