AND LAW ORDER ON THE COLORADO FRONTIER: THE BASES OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE GOVERNMENT
Richard Hogan University of Michigan November 1981
...................................................................
CRSO Working Paper No. 250
Copies available through: Center for Research on Social Organization University of Michigan 330 Packard Street Ann Arbor. MI 48109
Richard Hogan U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan November 1 9 8 1
s u b m i t t e d as C.R.S.O. 9 November 1 9 8 1
Working P a p e r
Abstract
T h i s paper r e l a t e s . v e r s i o n s of "law and o r d e r " i n N i n e t e e n t h Century Colorado t o t h e modes of p r o d u c t i o n which c h a r a c t e r i z e d i f f e r e n t f r o n t i e r i n d u s t r i e s . 1.ruiependent p r o d u c e r s who c o n t r o l t h e means and a b s o r b t h e c o s t s o f p r o d u c t i o n p a r t i c i p a t e . i n t h e C a r n i v a l o f p u b l i c government, m a i n t a i n i n g t h e independent economic c o n t r o l of producer and m e r c h a n t . Non-producers who f i n a n c e . t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s and who r e q u i r e p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y t o c o n t r o l p r o d u d t i o n r e l y o a p r i v a t e government, t h e Caucus. The mining and c a t t l e ' i n d u s t r i e s o f t h e Colorado f r o n t i e r p r o v i d e examples o f t h e modes of p r o d u c t i o n r e f l e c t e d , i n C a r n i v a l and Caucus and o f f e r e v i d e n c e of t h e dynamic p r o c e s s of p o l i t i c a l and economic s t r u g g l e w i t h i n t h e e c o l o g i c a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n f i n e s of t h e American f r o n t i e r , . s u g g e s t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e room f o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n and r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e o r e t i c a l .models which o f f e r . m a c r o - i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e a s t h e d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r , i n s o c i a l change.
'
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D e f i n i n g "Law and Order"
"Law and o r d e r " c o n s i s t s of a c o n c e n t r a t e d - m e a n s of coercion-, a set . o f p r o s c r i p t i v e o r p r e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e m e n t s and t h e employment of t h e former i n t h e d e f e n s e of t h e l a t t e r . I n t h i s a n a l y s i s , any set of p r o s c r i p t i v e o r
p r e s c r i p t i v e . s t a t e m e n t s which are p u b l i c l y r e c 0 r d e d . a ~p e r t a i n i n g t o a popul a t i o n of a c t o r s and a c t i o n s and a r e r e g u l a r l y defended by some c o l l e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l l e d c o n c e n t r a t e d means of c o e r c i o n w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d a v e r s i o n of "law and o r d e r " . -Only t h o s e v e r s i o n s which a r e c o l l e c t i v ' e l y promoted (by
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t h r e e o r more p e r s o n s ) w i l l be t h e o b j e c t o f s t u d y .
T h i s d e f i n i t i o n e x c l u d e s l e g i s l a t i o n w i t h o u t enforcement, and, i n t h i s
.
.
s e n s e , i t i s f a i t h f u l t o c l a s s i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s of "law". 'as
Weber d e f i n e s "law'!
". . .norms
whi.ch a r e d i r e c t l y g u a r a n t e e d by l e g a l coercion". (page 314). ' l e g a l order,' s h a l l
S i m i l a r l y , he s t a t e s , ; " A c o e r c i v e means...are
...be
s a i d t o e x i s t wherever
a v a i l a b l e " (page 317).
Morton F r i e d , i n h i s d e f i n i t i o n "The s t a t e i s
of t h e s t a t e , a l s o r e l i e s on t h e concept o f c o e r c i v e power. a n o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e power of s o c i e t y f ' (page 230).
"The s t a t e must e s t a b -
l i s h and m a i n t a i n s o v e r e i g n t y , which may b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and monopoly o f paramount c o n t r o l o v e r a p o p u l a t i o n and a n a r e a " .(page 237).
Both Weber and F r i e d r e s t r i c t . t h e d e f i n i t i o n of law t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n I have. Both i n c l u d e t h e p r e s e n c e of a n enforcement s t a f f a s p a r t of Weber s t a t e s , "An o r d e r w i l l be c a l l e d
their definition.
...l a w . i f
i t i s ex-
t e r n a l l y g u a r a n t e e d by t h e p r o b a b i l i t y . t h a t . . . c o e r c i o n w i l l b e a p p l i e d by a s t a f f of p e o p l e i n o r d e r t o b r i n g a b o u t compliance o r avenge v i o l a t i o n "
...
" t h e concept 'law' w i l l be made t o t u r n 'on t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s t a f f en-
,
gaged i n enforcement" (page 34).
F r i e d d e f i n e s law a s " . . . a
r u l e of con-
d u c t e n f o r c e d by s a n c t i o n s a d m i n i s t e r e d . b y a d e t e r m i n a t e l o c u s of power, . w h e t h e r by t h e s o v e r e i g n i t s e l f o r by a s u r r o g a t e " (page 20).
h he s t a t e ,
t h e n , i s a c o l l e c t i o n of s p e c i a l i z e d i n s t i t u t i o n s and a g e n c i e s , some formal ' a n d o t h e r s i n f o r m a l , t h a t ' m a i n t a i n s an o r d e r of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n " (page 235). and F r i e d m a i n t a i n Aside from t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s , b o t h ~ e b e r t h a t t h e s t a b i l i t y o f a government, o r any form of p o l i t i c a l ' d o m i n a t i o n , depends on i t s l e g i t i m a c y i n t h e e y e s of t h e s u b j e c t p o p u l a t i o n . "...any Weber w r i t e s ,
a u t h o r i t y g u a r a n t e e i n g a l e g a l o r d e r depends, i n some way, upon
t h e c o n s e n s u a l a c t i o n of t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e s o c i a l ' g r o u p s " (page 334.). "(A) ' l e g a l o r d e r ' i s e m p i r i c a l l y ' v a l i d ' owing n o t s o much t o t h e a v a i l a b i l -
i t y o f c o e r c i v e g u a r a n t e e s a s . t o i t s h a b i t u a t i o n a s 'usuage' and i t s ' r o u t i n i zation"' (page 333). S i m i l a r l y , F r i e d , quoting Austin, w r i t e s ,
"NOW
the
permanence o f every government depends on t h e h a b i t u a l obedience which i t r e c e i v e s f r o m , t h e b u l k o f t h e community" (page 2 5 ) .
C l e a r l y t h e n , m d e f i n i t i o n of "law and o r d e r " i s b o t h more and l e s s r e y s t r i c t i v e than one might.wish.
It e x c l u d e s government w i t h o u t enforcement,
b u t r e q u i r e s n e i t h e r t h e c o n s e n t of t h e governed n o r t h e c l a i m t o l e g i t i mate a u t h o r i t y . Furthermore, "law and o r d e r " does n o t r e q u i r e a monopoly
on t h e u s e of . c o e r c i v e v i o l e n c e ; more t h a n o n e v e r s i o n o f "iaw- and o r d e r " may be s a i d t o r u l e a p a. r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n . .
-- .
The b e n e f i t o f m d e f i n i t i o n is t h a t i t a l l o w s f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n y
. .
i n terms o f . f o r m a 1 s t r u c t u r e , i n c l u d i n g v i g i l a n c e committees and b u r e a u c r a t i c
governments, and a l l o w s f o r b o t h p u b l i c and p r i v a t e v e r s i o n s of "law and order". N e v e r t h e l e s s , it does n o t i n c l u d e t h e r u l e s imposed on f a m i l y
members o r employees' u n l e s s t h e s e ' a r e c o l l e c t i v e l y imposed by a group of p a t r i a r c h s o r employers. The c a t t l e m e n ' s law of t h e open r a n g e w o u l d ~ q u a l i f y The
t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t i s p u b l i c l y r e c o r d e d and c o l l e c t i v e l y defended.
law o f Judge.Roy Bean would n o t q u a l i f y u n l e s s i t could be shown t h a t he a c t e d . w i t h a group .of i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s . t h i s was not the case. H i s t o r i c a l accounts suggest t h a t
11.
Why "Law and Order"?
The a n a r c h i s t . t e l l s u s t h a t ,government f e t t e r s ' economy and s o c i e t y w i t h a dominant p a r t y which t r a m p l e s ' . t h e i n t e r e s t s of s u b o r d i n a t e s i n i t s q u e s t for control. However, n e i t h e r h i s t o r i a n s ' n o r s o c i o l o g i s ~ t s . h a v e e r i o u s l y s
,
c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b i 1 i t y : t h a t ' t h e f r o n t i e r might remain ungoverned.
On t h e one hand, t h e consensus s c h o o l a r g u e s t h a t government r e p r e s e n t s . t h e common i n t e r e s t s of t h e members, s e r v e s t o r e i n f o r c e t h e i r commitment t o s h a r e d b e l i e f s and v a l u e s and d e f e n d s t h e i r way of l i f e from t h e t h r e a t s of a n t i - s o c i a l b e h a v i o r . The e s t a b l i s h m e n t of government r e f l e c t s t h e i n -
.
s t i n c t s o r h a b i t s of t h e governed and t h e need t o defend s o c i e t y from t h e i n t r u s i o n o f o u t s i d e r s o r t h e d i s r u p t i v e i n f l u e n c e of a l i e n a t e d members.
1 t . i assumed t h a t government i s r e q u i r e d f o r e i t h e r t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l w e l l ~
being of t h e members o r t h e v i a b i l i t y of t h e c o l l e c t i v e endeavor.
O n . t h e o t h e r hand, t h e c o n f l i c t s c h o o l a r g u e s t h a t government i s t h e e x e c u t i v e committee f o r t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e r u l i n g , c l a s s . The o r g a n i z a t i o n
of p r o d u c t i o n i s t h e . b a s i s of s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y ; i t i s - t h e ' m e a n s of e f f e c t ,
.
Each mode of p r o d u c t i o n i s main-
' i n g t h e hegemony of ' t h e dominant c l a s s .
t a i n e d through t h e c o e r c i v e power of government, s o government r e f l e c t s t h e mode of p r o d* u c t i o n . ,.
,
It i s shaped by t h e n e e d s of t h e d ~ m i n a ~ lta s s and c
l e g i t i m a t e d by t h e i r p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y .
Monarchy d e f e n d s f a m i l y and l a n d
a l o n g w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t a r e i n h e r i t e d w i t h o n e 1s s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . Republicanism d e f e n d s c a p i t a l and i t s accumulation.
'
a l o n g w i t h t h e r i g h t s t o l i f e , l i b e r t y and t h e p u r s u i t o f happiness. Communism.defends t h e p r o d u c t i v e powers o f . t h e s o c i e t y and t h e power o f t h e s t a t e t o c o l l e c t and d i s t r i b u t e t h e g r o s s n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t . The s t a t e i n -
s u r e s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of each, a c c o r d i n g t o h i s a b i l i t y , . a n d i t d i s t r i b u t e s
t h e p r o d u c t , t o each a c c o r d i n g t o h i s need.
While t h e consensus - and c o n f l i c t s c h o o l s d i f f e r i n t h e i r a n a l y s e s o f t h e c a u s e s and e f f e c t s 'of government, t h e y a g r e e t h a t government, i s e s s e n t i a l t o ' t h e c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e o f economy and s o c i e t y . .
It is. i r o n i c t h a t these
opposing s c h o o l s converge .in t h e i r m i l l e n i a l v i s i o n s of t h e government of t h e people.
'
The c ~ n s e n s u ss c h o o l views t h e b o u r g e o i s . r e v o l u t i o n . a s t h e
s t r u g g l e t o e s t a b l i s h a l i m i t e d government w h i c h . p r o t e c t s t h e r i g h t s of i n d i v i d u a l s and d e f e n d s e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y a s t h e c o l l e c t i v e i n t e r e s t . The C o n f l i c t s c h o o l views t h e communist r e v o l u t i o n a s . t h e s t r u g g l e t o c r e a t e a powerful c e n t r a l s t a t e which c o n t r o l s t h e p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n of commodities and d e f e n d s t h e c o l l e c t i v i t y i n t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e membership. While communism and r e p u b l i c a n i s m d i f f e r i n many i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s ( a l though t h e e x t a n t v e r s i o n s show. s i g n s o f convergence), b o t h r e f l e c t t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e government of t h e p e o p l e ( i n d i v i d u a l l y o r c o l l e c t i v e l y ) can resolve the c o n f l i c t s inherent i n s o c i a l inequality.
I o f f e r no s u c h hope t o t h e a r c h i t e c t s of p o l i t i c a l economy.
The
c r e a t i o n and d e s t r u c t i o n o f economy and s o c i e t y c h a r a c t e r i z e s human h i s t o r y t e s t i f i e s t o t h e i n h e r e n t i n s t a b i l i t y o f p o l i t i c a l domination. Governments
,
,do n o t emerge o u t of a n a r c h y ; t h e y a r e ' n u r t u r e d by t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s and .they, i n t u r n , p r o v i d e - t h e means f o r t h e i r d i s p l a c e m e n t . N e i t h e r communism
n o r r e p u b l i c a n i s m w i l l e s c a p e t h e i r common f a t e , ,but t h e i r p r o p o n e n t s o f f e r t h q e l e m e n t s f o r a comprehensive t h e o r y o f t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e s t a t e . rowing s e l e c t i v e l y , one may approach t h e i s s u e s of how. and why "law and o r d e r " came t o Colorado.
or-
..
.
.
.
The consensus s c h o o l o f f e r s two i m p b r t a n t i n s i g h t s : emerging forms of government a r e r o o t e d i n t h e p o l i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n of t h e s o c i e t y , and t h e y correspond t o t h e e x t a n t forms of s o c i a l and economic l i f e . P e o p l e do n o t
c o n s t r u c t t h e i r government from whole c l o t h ; t h e y a r e l i m i t e d by t h e examples which h i s t o r y h a s provided and t h e r e s o u r c e s which t h e y . c o n t r o 1 . governments a r e n o t c r e a t e d a s a form o f d i v e r s i o n . Also,
They a r e e x p e n s i v e and
p o , t e n t i a l l y dangerous, s o t h e y a r e e s t a b l i s h e d and m a i n t a i n e d o n l y i n l i g h t of t h e f u n c t i o n t h e y might s e r v e . I n s h o r t , governments a r e e s t a b l i s h e d
w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f what i s a v a i l a b l e and u s e f u l ; . i n t h i s s e n s e t h e y r e f l e c t c u l t u r e and s o c i e t y , t h e p a s t and t h e p r e s e n t .
The c o n f l i c t s c h o o l o f f e r s a dynamic f o r c e which p r o p e l s t h e p r o c e s s of
.
s o c i a l change.
C l a s s c o n ' f l i c t , a s r e f 1 , e c t e d i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n ;
r e s u l ' t s i n t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f government by t h e , c l a s s which e s t a b l i s h e s i t s hegemony. Hegemony i s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e economic a r e n a t h r o u g h t h e i m p o s i t i o n
of t h e mode o f p r o d u c t i o n which r e c r e a t e s t h e i n e q u a l i t y t h a t s e r v e s a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e dqmination of a p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s . However, t h e a b i l i t y t o re-
o r g a n i z e p r o d u c t i o n i s p r e d i c a t e d on t h e c a p a c i t y t o dominate t h e e x t a n t
.
.
politic'l
economy d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t i t h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d t o m a i n t a i n
t h e hegemony of a d i f f e r e n t c l a s s .
'one
must endure t h e f e t t e r s of' t h e
e x t a n t p o l i t i c a l economy and a c h i e v e domination
in
t e r m s of t h a t system be-
f o r e one can r e o r g a n i z e t h e means of p r o d u c t i o n and e s t a b l i s h government on the basis o f . t h a t reorganization.
-
I n t y i n g t o g e t h e r t h e s e d i s p a r a t e t h r e a d s of p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y , I o f f e r t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e emergence of Itlaw.and o r d e r " i n Colorado :
1. The forms of "law and o r d e r " which emerge on t h e Colorado f r o n t i e r resemble t h e v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s of r e p u b l i c a n government t h a t have been . p r e v i o u s l y adopted.
2. The v e r s i o n o f "law and o r d e r " which i s adopted i n a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l i t y w i l l r e f l e c t . t h e predominant mode of p r o d u c t i o n . i n terms of t h e r e l a t i v e power o f t h e i n t e r e s t e d ' c l a s s e s a n d . t h e n a t u r e and ex-. t e n t of 'dominant c l a s s c o n t r o l . of t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s .
3. The r e c o n s t i t u t i o n of ."law and o r d e r " w i l l m i r r o r t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n ; t h e l a t t e r depends on t h e c a p a c i t y 'of a n emerging c l a s s t o a c h i e v e hegemony w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e e x t a n t p o l i t i c a l economy.
In s h o r t , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of " l a w and o r d e r " r e s u l t s from t h e c o n f l i c t
s u r r o u n d i n g t h e - a t t e m p t t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e t h e b a s i s o f .econom,ic i n e q u a l i t y and t h e . p r o c e s s of r e p r o d u c i n g t h a t - i n e q u a l i t y through t h e mode o f p r o d u c t i o n . "Law and o r d e r " i s r e c o n s t i t u t e d a s p r o d u c t i o n i s r e o r g a n i z e d , r e f l e c t i n g t h e hegemony -of a new . c l a s s .
. .
'
For example, t h e mining c o u r t emerges from
t h e c o n f l i c t between t h o s e who c o n t r o l and t h o s e who s e e k t o c o n t r o l mindng claims. I n s p e c i f y i n g t h e means' of e s t a b l i s h i n g a c l a i m , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n
between mine-owner.and miner i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d and t h e domination of t h e former i s de'fended by law. The a r t i s a n a l mode of p r o d u c t i o n i s maintain.ed
by . t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s of a c q u i r i n g and e x p l o i t i n g mining claims. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e mine-owner f r o m . t h e m i n e r , mining c o u r t law p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i n t r u s i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t . To de'fend propWith t h e
e r t y , i n terms o,f t h e means of p r o d u c t i o n , i s t o d e f e n d c a p i t a l .
accumulation of c a p i t a l and t h e p r o f i t a b i l i t y of t h e c a p i t a l i s t mode of p r o d u c t i o n , comes t h e hegemony o f ' t h e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s , t h e new mine-owners, who r e o r g a n i z e p r o d u c t i o n ' and r e c o n s t i t u t e ' l a w and o r d e r ' o n t h a t b a s i s .
. -.
111.
V e r s i o n s .of "Law and Order"
I n a t t e m p t i n g to. d i s t i n g u i s h v e r s i o n s of "law and o r d e r " and a s s o c i a t e t h e s e w i t h modes o f p r o d u c t i o n , one e x p e r i e n c e s .an embarrassment of r i c h e s .
-
There a r e innumerable v a r i a t i o n s on t h e theme o f ' r e p u b l i c a n government,
hence's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n t e r m s ' o f form o r c o n t e n t l e a v e s one w i t h an enormous m a t r i x of p o s s i b l e v e r s i o n s and a n i n s u f f i c i e n t. sample of c a s e s t o . classify. With t h i s i n mind, t h e f o c u s of t h i s a n a l y s i s w i l l be t h e d i s -
t i n c t i o n between p r i v a t e and p u b l i c v e r s i o n s o f "law and o r d e r " and t h e modes o f p r o d u c t i o n which a r e g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each.
The Caucus i s a n i d e a l t y p e which r e p r e s e n t s v e r s i o n s o f p r i v a t e "law and o r d e r " .
-It i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i r r e g u l a r , s m a l l , p r i v a t e ~ e e t i n g s(behind
c l o s e d d o o r s ) w i t h d i s c u s s i o n of p r e s s i n g . m a t t e r s and p l a n n i n g f o r g e n e r a l s t r a t e g i e s . . I t t a k e s i t s name from t h e - p a r t y c a u c u s , developed by t h e J e f f e r s o n i a n Republican l e a d e r s a s a means o f m a i n t a i n i n g p a r t y u n i t y i n t h e nomination of o f f i c i a l s and t h e o p p o s i t i o n o r s u p p o r t of l e g i s l a t i o n . ~ a n d d w n e r s ' c l u b s .of t h e e a r l y 1 9 t h c e n t u r y a r e p e r h a p s t h e most f a m i l i a r example of p r i v a t e "law and order", men's s s s o c i a t i o n s , t h e Caucus. I n Colorado, t h e ' c a t t l e -
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e i r e a r l y form, p r o v i d e a n example o f
. .
".law and o r d e r " a s Caucus.
The C a r n i v a l is t h e i d e a l t y p e which r e p r e s e n t s p u b l i c v e r s i o n s of "law and order". c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p e r i o d i c , p u b l i c e v e n t s w i t h widespread the
p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , r h e t o r i c a l f l o u r i s h and symbolic mass-appeals,
c a r n i v a l resembles t h e New England Town Meeting o r t h e V i r g i n a i D i s t r i c t C o u r t , whose s e s s i o n s provided t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p o l i t i c a l s p e e c h e s , o u t door m a r k e t s and v a r i o u s forms of p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t . I n Colorado, t h e
e a r l y mining supply-towns p r o v i d e a n example of "law and o r d e r " a s C a r n i v a l .
Both t h e Caucus and t h e C a r n i v a l a r e r o o t e d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n of American r e p u b l i c a n government.
.
The Caucus emerged under J e f f e r s o n i a n r u l e a s . a v e h i c l e and t h e C a r n i v a l - i s
f o r c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e a c t - i v i t i e s of l i k e - m i n d e d . p e r s o n s ,
. .
older than the Constitution.
The C a r n i v a l was i n s t i t u t . i o n a l i z e d a s th,e.means
of i n r e g r a t i n g p o p u l a r government 'and t h e p o l i t i c s o f . d e f e r e n c e ; i-tw a s t h e modal means of g e n e r a t i n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e p a t r i o t cause. Thus b o t h forms
were a v a i l a b l e a s v e r s i o n s of r e p u b l i c a n government and t h e i r emergence on t h e Colorado f r o n t i e r i s l e s s t h a n s u r p r i s i n g . The i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n i s :
why d i d some c o m m u n i t i e s a d o p t t h e Caucus w h i l e o t h e r s adopted t h e C a r n i v a l ?
IV.
Analysis
.
.
The Caucus i s b a s i c a l l y a n e x e c u t i v e committee of t h e r u l i n g c l a s s . I t emerges f r o m ' t h e d e s i r e t o r e p r e s s t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a s s i n l i g h t of t h e ' d i f f i c u l t y of m a i n t a i n i n g c o n t r o l through p u r e l y economic means and t h e r e l a t i v e weakness of t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a s s , i n terms of t h e i r p o t e n t i a l . f o r . . m o b i l i z a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e C a u c u s . i s l i k e l y t o emerge
.
when t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a s s l a c k s i n c e n t i v e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r p r o d u c t i v i t y ,
i . e . when rewards do n o t r e f l e c t p r o d u c t i v i t y , and when t h e dominant c l a s s is a t r i s k i n production, i . e .
finances the production process. However,
i t ' i s d i f f i c u l t - t o .impose r u l e by Caucus when t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a s s h a s ..
independent economic r e s o u r c e s , i . e .
t h e a b i l i t y t o produce f o r s u b s i s t e n c e
w i t h o u t r e l a t i o n s t o dominant c l a s s , and e n j o y s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m o b i l i t y ,
i . e . .does n o t -depend on a dominant-class s p o n s o r f o r ' s o c i a l o r g e o g r a p h i c
mobility.
The e a r l y Colorado c a t t l e i n d u s t r y i s a n e x c e l l e n t example of r u l e by
.
.
'
Caucus and t h e mode of p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h , p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r p r i v a t e "law and o r d e r " . A l t h o u g h . t h e r e were some a t t e m p t s t o s h a r e t h e r i s k s of d r i v i n g
c a t t l e t o market by c h a r g i n g t h e t r a l l d r i v e r a f i x e d amount p e r head and a l l o w i n g him t o pocket t h e s u r p l u s o r a b s o r b t h e l o s s when' t h e c a t t l e were s o l d , t h i s s t r a t e g y proved u n a c c e p t a b l e because t h e t r a i l d r i v e r l a c k e d t h e ' c a p i t a l t o a b s o r b heavy l o s s e s and t h e r a n c h e r l o s t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c a p i t a l i z e on t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o f i t .
.
G e n e r a l l y , t h e t r a i l d r i v e r and t h e t r a i l h a n d s were p a i d on a' fee-fors e r v i c e b a s i s and r e c e i v e d t h e same f e e whether t h e y d e l i v e r e d t h e bulk of t h e o r i g i n a l h e r d , t h e r e b y e n r i c h i n g t h e r a n c h e r , o r l o s t a l l b u t a few of
..
t h e cows and v i r t u a l l y bankrupt t h e r a n c h e r .
The problem f o r t h e r a n c h e r
10
was simply t h i s . miles df
How could one send a group of temporary employees a c r o s s
.
has-tile t e r r i t o r y w i t h a l a r g e number -of a n i m a l s whose u l t i m a t e
S i n c e t h e cowboys could
v a l u e depended on t h e i r c o n d i t i o n upon d e l i v e r y ?
. n o t a b s o r b t h e p o t e n t i a l l o s s e s , it would have been d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v i d e economic i n c e n t i v e s f o r a j o b w e l l done. e n j o y r e c e i v i n g bonuses, t h a n t h e going wage. While t h e cowboys would probably
&
seems u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e y would work f o r l e s s
T h i s being t h e c a s e , i t makes l i t t l e s e n s e t o pay
h i g h e r wages i f .one must a b s o r b t h e l o s s e s i n any e v e n t .
Given t h a t t h e cowboys lacked t h e c a p i t a l t o buy t h e cows and a b s o r b t h e r i s k s of t h e c a t t l e d r i v e , they depended on t h e r a n c h e r s f o r employment. r a n c h e r s had a common i n t e r e s t i n cheap cowboy l a b o r , s i n c e t h e t r a n s p o r t c o s t s r e p r e s e n t e d a f i x e d c o s t which had t o b e s u b t r a c t e d from p r o f i t s o r .added t o l o s s e s r e g a r d l e s s of .the p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f t h e d r i v e . I t made The
l i t t l e s e n s e t o i n f i a t e a r t i f i c i a l l y t h e c o s t o f ' t r a n s p o r t by b i d d i n g f o r
. .
t h e ' c o w b o y s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e p r o f i t a b i l i t y of t h e d r i v e could n o t be i n s u r e d by o f f e r i n g a l a r g e r s h a r e t o l a b o r . The r a n c h e r s found i t more
p r o f i t a b l e t o s p o n s o r a cowboy e l i t e , t h e t r a i l d r i v e r s , who were r e l a t i v e l y
w e l l p a i d and w e r e f r e q u e n t l y a b l e , w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e i r employer, t o
e s t a b l i s h themselves a s r a n c h e r s when t h e y became t o o o l d . a n d t i r e d t o c h a s e cowboys Hnd cows.
The o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e t r a i l d r i v e allowed t h e r a n c h e r t o c o n t r o l t h e .cowboys p o l i t i c a l l y , r e l y i n g on t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e t r a i l d r i v e r t o a s s u r e t h e s a f e p a s s a g e o f t h e c a t t l e and t h e f u l l c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e t r a i l h a n d s . The t r a i l d r i v e r , o r t r a i l boss a s he was c a l l e d , was a r e l a t i v e l y cheap means of m a i n t a i n i n g c o n t r o l , s i n c e ' o n l y . o n e employee was rewarded
economically f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e r a n c h e r ' s i n t e r e s t and s i n c e t h e c o s t of t r a n s p 0 r . t w a s f i x e d , a l t h o u g h o n e might s h a r e some of t h e p r o f i t s w i t h t h e
. .
traildriver.
. I n any c a s e , i t was cheaper. t o p r o v i d e economic i n c e n t i v e s
t o t h e b o s s and r e l y on h i s a u t h o r i t y t o s p u r cowboy -commitment t o a j o b
w e l l done.
'
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e . t r a i l d r i v e r was h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e a s a s u p e r v i s o r .
In
g e n e r a l , he was t h e toughe-st, most e x p e r i e n c e d and most d e d i c a t e d cowboy o n the t r a i l .
H e commanded r e s p e c t a s t h e epitome of t h e t r a i l h a n d y e t h i s
l o y a l t i e s w e r e c l e a r l y t i e d t o t h e r a n c h e r , s i n c e h i s economic f u t u r e could
'rise o r f a l l as he gained t h e r a n c h e r ' s esteem o r d i s a p p r o v a l .
!he t r a i l d r i v e r s t o o d a s a c o n s t a n t reminder t$at
Beyond t h i s ,
cowboys could r a i s e t h e i r
s t a t u s and i n c r e a s e t h e i r w e a l t h by d o i n g t h e r a n c h e r ' s b i d d i n g .
However, t h e v i a b i l i t y of t h i s economic system depends on t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e r a n c h e r c l a s s . The Caucus i s adopted.:because t h e a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t y r a t h e r t h a n e c ~ n o m i c a l l ybased, rests
of t h e t r a i l d r i v e r , b e i n g
u l t i m a t e l y on t h e p o l i t i c a l power of t h e r a n c h e r whom t h e t r a i l d r i v e r r e p r e sents. The p r . i v a t e government of t h e r a n c h e r s t e s t i f i e s t o t h e i r u l t i m a t e
a u t h o r i t y , m a i n t a i n i n g t h e r i g h t of t h e t r a i l d r i v e r t o r u l e i n t h e i r name and s e c u r i n g t h e l o y a l t y of t h e d r i v e r by emphasizing t h e s u p e r i o r s t a t u s of posi.tion t h a t h e . m i g h t e a r n w i t h h i s l o y a l t y . The Caucus a l s o
provided t h e r a n c h e r s w i t h a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o . d e t e r m i n e t h e going wage f o r t r a i l b o s s and t r a i l h a n d and t h e r u l e s which govern t h e d r i v e . The
.Caucus p r o y i d e s t h e r a n c h e r s w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l power t o c o n t r o l t h e c a t t l e t r a i l and, more g e n e r a l l y , t h e c a t t l e i n d u s t r y . The Caucus .,is needed because
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' o f t h e c a t t l e i n d u s t r y does n o t provide t h e rancher with
s u f f i c i e i t economic c o n t r o l d v e r cowhands.
The r a n c h e r r e q u i r e s p o l i t i c a l
c o n t r o l t o i n s u r e t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f s u r p l u s l a b o r v a l u e and t h e accumulat i o n of c a p i t a l .
The ' c a r n i v a l i s .a d i f f e r e n t animal a l t o g e t h e r . s e t of p o l i t i c a l and econokic r e a l i t i e s .
It - r e f l e c t s a d i s t i n c t i v e
B a s i c a l l y , i t is a popular o r repre-
s e n t a t i v e goverrgnent, founded on p r i n c i p l e s of l i b e r t y and e q u a l i t y and d e d i c a t e d t o m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s t a t u s quo. While t h e Caucus i s a q u i e t means of It
'doing much, . t h e C a r n i v a l i s a n o i s y means o f doing l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g .
s e r v e s b e s t when t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a s s c o n t r o l s independent e c o n o m i c , r e s o u r c e s and a b s o r b s t h e r i s k of p r o d u c t i o n ; i t f a i l s m i s e r a b l y when t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a s s l a c k s t h e i n c e n t i v e t o produce and i t t h r i v e s on t h e appearance of achieved m o b i l i t y , s i n c e t h i s a r . t i c u l a t e s w e i l w i t h t h e n o t i o n s of l i b e r t y
.
and e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y and i t r e i n f o r c e s commitment t o t h e s t a t u s quo. I n s h o r t , t h e C a r n i v a l d o e s n o t h i n g m o r e . t h a n p r o t e c t t h e . b a s i s of economic i n e q u a l i t y and t h e p r o c e s s of p r o d u c t i o n which r e p r o d u c e s t h a t i n e q u a l i t y .
It does n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , s i n c e , p r o d u c e r s have
economic - i n c e n t i v e s t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n and nonproducers a r e a b l e t o . . a p p r o p r i a t e s u r p l u s v a l u e and accumulate, c a p i t a l . o n t h e b a s i s of t h e i r economic r e l a t i o n s w i t h p r o d u c e r s .
.
E a r l y mining supply-towns a r e a n example of law and o r d e r a s C a r n i v a l ; t h e i n i t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e mining i n d u s t r y i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p u b l i c r i t u a l o f supply-town j u s t i c e . U n l i k e t h e cowboys, t h e m i n e r s of e a r l y
. . .
Colorado were a b l e t o a b s o r b t h e c o s t s o f p r o d u c t i o n and c o n t r o l t h e prod u c t i o n p r o c e s s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l c a p i t a l investment and t h e a p p l i c a -
t i o n of t h e i r own l a b o r power. A s independent p r o d u c e r s , t h e y had i n c e n t i v e s f o r maximizing p r o d u c t i o n , b u t t h e y c o u l d n o t e a t t h e i r g o l d , and t h e y depended
on t h e .merchant t o buy g o l d and s e l l fo.od a s w e l l a s mining ,equipment.
The
merchant was s i m i l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e m i n e r ' s p r o d u c t i v i t y , b u t was n o t r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e i n c e n t i v e s o r i n any .way a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l . t h e p r o c e s s o.f p r o d u c t i o n . . So l o n g a s t h e r e was gold and f o o d , w i t h m i n e r s t o d i g and merchants t o s e l l , t h e r e was no need t o impose ~ o l i t i c a lc o n t r o l on t h e r o u t i n e o p e r a t i o n of t h e mining e...