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Chapter Lecture 1 - Intro and Research Methods PSYCHOLOGY - human mind and behavior (thoughts, motivations, perceptions, sensations, behavior, human interaction) Assumptions of science1. ORDER in the universe, things happen for a reason, lawful and not haphazard relationships 2. DETERMINISM - every event has a physical, potentially measurable cause. Causes two problems. a. FREE WILL b. 3. SKEPTICISM doubts all claims not supported by solid research evidence. Especially important in psychology- many of our findings are tentative and subject to change with time. We are surrounded and affected by culture. 4. ACCURACY evaluate info as carefully as possible 5. OBJECTIVITY -- science has the duty to be free of bias 6. OPEN MINDEDNESS - willingness to change if they are given suitable data Goals of scientific research1. DESCRIPTION citing of observable characteristics a. SYSTEMATIC describe only relevant items. Example, if I'm writing about social interaction in a classroom setting, I do not need to tell you what the teacher is wearing. b. PRECISE concrete descriptions measurement use of numbers. c. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS definitions in terms of the procedures used to measure or produce. Example drunk is having a BAC of .08 or above. 2. PREDICTION Based on what I've seen in the past, what will happen next? a. HYPOTHESIS testable prediction about relationship between two or more factors b. THEORY statements that summarize / explain research findings and from which hypotheses are derived. An overview of what we know so far about a topic. c. PREDICTIONS about human behavior are more accurate in regard to people in general than to a specific person (better applied to groups than individuals) This means on average, people in situation A respond with reaction B, but I cannot say precisely what one of you will do. 3. CONTROL manipulating factors that affect thought / behavior. a. EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL in research, controlling as many factors as possible. Example, if I'm testing mood, I want to test them all on the same day of the week. It's 6:30 on Monday- how you feeling? This could differ from 6:30 on Friday. The same experiment proctor should be used you don't like everyone around you equally. b. EVERYDAY CONTROL application of research findings to control of behavior. This is applying research findings to controlled behavior in everyday life. c. EXPLANATION discovering the causes of changes in behavior, thought and emotion. Particularly difficult in psychology. We think antidepressants affect certain parts of the brain, but we're not sure. They were discovered trying to cure tuberculosis they didn't help but people felt better about having tuberculosis. Electroshock therapy shocks the depression out of you we can control it, but we don't know why. 4. SCIENTIFIC METHOD series of steps to answer questions
a. RATIONALE / REVIEW RELEVANT LITERATURE. i. Identify area of psychology. Once you decide on area, you can look up what other researchers have done in this area. ii. Review research 1. Operational definitions. Example, concerning parents - are they biological? Step? Adopted? 2. Avoid needless replication 3. Put research into broader context 4. Other theories expose yourself to other theories or ideas on the same general topic / idea. b. DEVELOP HYPOTHESIS i. Example hypothesis - if parents fight, students don't perform as well c. DESIGN STUDY / COLLECT DATA i. Example I can go to a high school and ask students directly how often their parents fight. However, ideas of frequency differ. You can ask teachers, however they are biased. You can put cameras in a home, ask the babysitter, etc. It is very difficult to design a proper study. d. ANALYZE DATA i. Use statistics 1. Descriptive statistics summarize one set of data - mean, variability. Example, 90% of people like chocolate. 2. Inferential statistics compare groups 3. Discuss implications of research findings e. PUBLISH RESULTS / REPLICATE i. Publish findings journal, conference, e-mail, etc. Get findings out to psychological researchers. ii. Replicate study - One study is meaningless, you need to perform it over and over to make sure it can be replicated. 1. Replicate exact study, except for participants. Important to verify results. 2. Replicate study with systematic variation of relevant variables. Example, age variation, gender, income and education, type and severity of abuse, etc. This allows you to get closer and closer to the real cause of the results. f. BUILD THEORY TYPES OF RESEARCH 1. Descriptive research systematic observations a. No causation or prediction. b. Naturalistic observation important that people being observed do not know they are being observed. They will change their behavior. Called the Hawthorne effect. c. Ethnographic research found in cross-cultural research. Many times the researcher lives with the culture. Margaret Mead found that students were encouraged to have premarital sex; however she was lied to. d. archival research useful to see how things have changed over time. If I were trying to compare dating now to dating in your parents' time, I could examine diaries, love letters, etc. e. Case Studies
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Correlation research - enables prediction 1. Cannot induce variable for ethical / logical reasons (post traumatic stress after Katrina.. Can't create a hurricane) 2. Correlation coefficient - degree of relationship between two or more variables a. Positive correlation coefficient b. Negative correlation coefficient 3. Range - 0 to absolute 1.00 4. CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION!!! Experimental research - casual relationship 1. Need a sample of the population - accurately reflects characteristics of the population. I can't feasibly test all teenagers in the US, so I test a random sample. If half of the teenage population is female, half of my sample needs to me female. a. Random sample - each participant in the population is equally likely to be chosen.
Lecture 2
Monday, January 28, 2008 6:00 PM
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Neurons a. AKA nerve cells - communicate information in brain and throughout body b. Glial cells - support and nourish neurons Parts of the Neuron a. Cell body - aka soma - contains nucleus - help neuron carry out its functions b. Dendrites - branchlike extensions of cell body- receive info from other cells
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Axon- long extension from cell body that conveys information towards other neurons, or muscles and glands d. Myelin sheath- white, fatty coating. Insulates and increases speed of transmission. e. Terminal buttons- send signals from a neuron to adjacent cells f. Synapse- connections between buttons g. Synaptic cleft- space between two neurons Communication between neurons a. Presynaptic neuron- neuron sending an impulse b. Postsynaptic neuron- neuron receiving the impulse c. Neurotransmitters- chemicals produced and released by neurons that cause changes in other neurons d. Receptors- protein molecules in the postsynaptic neuron. They act like locks that can only be opened by certain "keys" or neurotransmitters. Physical structures of the brain a. Cerebral cortex- outer surface of two cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior. b. Most recently evolved part of nervous system. c. Convolutions- folds of the cerebral cortex d. Primary somatosensory cortex- receives sensory messages from entire body e. Primary motor cortex- sends messages from brain to various muscles and glands of body Lobes of the brain a. Occipital- receives and processes visual information b. Temporal- complex visual tasks; information from the ears; balance; emotions and motivations; language c. Parietal- sensory information from all over the body. Oversees spatial abilities. d. Frontal- receives and coordinates messages from the other three lobes. Previous and future body movements. Also controls personality. e. Lateral prefrontal cortex- problem solving i. Women are more valuable than men. It takes 9 months to produce an infant and then they have to nourish the infant. We only need a couple males to fertilize the females. Behavioral Genetics a. Behavioral genetics- explores the impact of genetics and environmental factors on differences in the behavioral, biological, and psychological processes of groups (not individuals). b. Methods for studying behavior genetics i. Twin studies1. Monozygotic- identical twins. One egg has split into two individuals. They share 100% of DNA and are considered natural clones, except for fingerprints. 2. Dizygotic- fraternal twins. Two fertilized eggs at the same time. They share about 50% of their DNA. 3. What differs is the amount of shared DNA. However, they both grow up in a "Twinned environment". 4. Concordance rates- agreement between twins on a characteristic. If A1 has a certain characteristic, how often does A2 have the same characteristic? If we find higher concordance rates with the monozygotic twins, we know it's more genetic than environmental for that characteristic. If we find higher
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concordance rates for dizygotic twins, we know the characteristic is shaped more by their environment. Adoption studies Focus on children who were adopted at birth and brought up by parents not genetically related to them. Adopted children only have genetics in common with their biological parents, so if they share a characteristic with them it's genetics. Adopted children only have environment in common with their adopted parents, so if they share a characteristic with them it's environment. Family studies If genes influence a trait, close relatives would share that trait more often than distant relatives because close relatives have more genes In common. a. Example: schizophrenia. If you have a sibling with the disease, you are 8x more likely to develop it yourself. If your parents have the disease, you are 10x more likely. This is probably due to genetics. b. In family studies, it is hard to differentiate genes and the environment. c. Depression runs in families. Their could be a depressed gene in a family or a person could be affected psychologically by being raised around depressed family members.
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Chapter 3-- Stress and Health Psychology Health psychology a. Health psychology- relationship between psychological behavior and physical health and illness, or the connection between mind and body. b. Stress- how a body responds to any number of physical or emotional stimuli. i. Bodily changes- increased heart rate, respiratory rate, sweating, skin problems, increased blood pressure, metabolism, changes in circulating fats. Eustress and Distress a. Eustress- pleasant or curative stress b. unpleasant Distress- or disease-producing stress c. When we say stress in this chapter, we will be referring to distress. Sources of stress a. Life changes- adjustment can cause stress i. Social readjustment rating scale1. Doesn't take into account different life circumstances 2. Degree of stress caused depends on how stressor is perceived ii. Chronic stressors- ongoing, continuous pressures, when urge to fight or flight has been suppressed. 1. Ex. In-laws iii. Hassles and burnout 1. Hassles- minor, irritating incidents that occur everyday. 2. Burnout- physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion attributable to long-term involvement in emotionally demanding situations. a. Fatigue, loss of idealism/energy, emotional numbness, etc. 3. Herbert Freudenberger- studied volunteers in free clinic movement and coined term burnout
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Frustration- unpleasant tension, anxiety, and heightened sympathetic activity resulting from a blocked goal. 1. Five types of frustration (according to Morris) a. Delays b. Lack of resources/wants c. Losses d. Failure e. Discrimination v. Conflicts 1. Conflicts- having to choose between two or more incompatible goals or impulses a. Two opposite tendencies, approach and avoidance b. Three basic types of conflict i. Approach-approach- occurs when a person has to choose between two equally pleasurable alternatives ii. Avoidance-avoidance- results when neither choice is pleasurable iii. Approach-avoidance- a person has to make a choice that has both positive and negative aspects General adaptation syndrome a. Walter cannon- 1932 described fight or flight response b. Hans Selye- body responds to stressful conditions with a general adaptation syndrome. He concluded that with a chronic stressor, we respond with a 3 stage general adaptation syndrome. i. Alarm reaction- immediate reaction to stressor (fight or flight) ii. Stage or resistance- body adapts to continual stressors iii. Stage of exhaustion- body's resistance to stress may be gradually reduce, or may collapse quickly Individual differences in stress a. Personality types i. Type A- impatient, hard-driving, ambitious, competitive and hostile. They react badly to sources of stress . 1. They are at higher risk for developing heart disease. ii. Type B- more relaxed, easy-going, and less easily angered. They tend to handle stress better. b. Optimism and pessimism i. Coronary bypass surgery- optimistic patients recover more quickly ii. 25 year Harvard graduate study. 1. Pessimists were found to be ill/dead by 45-50 year age range. 2. Pessimists don't take as good care of themselves, do not cope as well, and appear to have depressed immune functioning (=greater illness). c. Hardiness i. Suzanne Kobasa- people who tolerate stress exceptionally well or seem to thrive on it. ii. Characteristics 1. More open to change; they see it more as an opportunity 2. Internally motivated; they believe in what they're doing and want to be involved, not just a paycheck
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Deeply committed to work; probably because they are internally motivated 4. Meaningful activity; volunteer work, hobbies they value, social relationships 5. Challenge; they see stress as challenges to overcome (God never shuts a door without opening a window) 6. Control; they believe they can improve their lives by their own efforts d. Overcoming stress i. Resilience- ability to "bounce back" from stressors ii. Study of 240 high-risk kids in Hawaii. The study followed the high-risk children and low-risk children for 40 years. 1/3 of the kids were resilient, but 2/3 had significant problems later in life. 1. Characteristics of the resilient- affectionate and outgoing kids since childhood 2. Interests and talents that helped them make friends and find a sense of purpose 3. Warm, caring relationship with at leas one adult other than parents (a mentor) Posttraumatic stress disorder a. PTSD- once called shell shock or battle fatigue syndrome. Anyone who goes through significant trauma can experience it. It is more common in women than men. i. Symptoms 1. Intrusion- memories of trauma reoccur unexpectedly; "flashbacks" 2. Avoidance- person who often avoids close emotional ties with family, colleagues, and friends; reminders of event 3. Hyperarousal- PTSD can cause those who have it to act as if they are constantly threatened by trauma that caused their illness 4. Comorbidity- the presence of other emotional problems are usually also present (ex. Depression and drug/alcohol abuse) Coping with stress a. Problem focused coping- taking steps to change source of stress (ex. Study) b. Emotion focused coping- efforts to change one's emotional response to stressor (ex. Shop, drugs) c. Correlation between a person's perception of control she feels she has and use of problem- vs. emotion-focused coping. d. Most psychologists believe that emotion-focused coping should not be your only way of coping with stress- it generally offers only short term relief. Smoking a. Effects of smoking include i. Increased heart disease, ii. cancer (lung, mouth, throat, etc), iii. chronic bronchitis, iv. emphysema, v. ulcers, vi. Social embarrassment- bad breath, stinky clothes, etc. vii. Nonsmoking laws may keep people from quitting. b. Why do people smoke in the first place?
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We start young, when we're stupid and want to impress our friends and peers. Personal fable- we believe we are unique and no one else has had our experiences, gives us a sense of not being able to be harmed. ii. Once you begin smoking, you quickly become addicted. The addictiveness of nicotine is comparable to heroin and cocaine. c. Withdrawal symptoms i. Cravings to smoke 1. Irritable, cranky 2. Insomnia 3. Fatigue 4. Inability to concentrate 5. Headache 6. Cough 7. Sore throat 8. Constipation, gas, stomach pain 9. Smoking Cessation a. 5 D's i. DELAY until urge passes - usually within 3-4 minutes ii. DISTRACT yourself iii. DRINK water to fight off cravings. iv. DEEP breaths- relax! v. DISCUSS your feelings with someone else close to you. b. Exercise- get a little every day c. Get more rest. d. Relaxation e. Reward yourself at end of every single smoke free day you complete early on. 10. Binge Drinking a. Binge drinking- consuming five or more drinks in a row for boys and four or more in a row for girls (shot of liquor=glass of wine=beer) b. Alcohol is a poison- you have to pace your drinking in order to give your body time to process. Too many drinks in too short of a time will kill you. c. Benjamin Wynne, a 20 year old LSU student, died August 27, 1997, after celebrating midnight with his frat Sig Ep. Vomiting stations were located inside the bar. He had the equivalent of 25-30 drinks in his system during an hour and had a blood alcohol content of .588
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Chapter 4- Sensation and Perception 1. Sensation and Perception a. Sensation- receiving, converting, and transmitting information from outside world to the brain. b. Perception- selecting, organizing, and interpreting raw sensory data into useful mental representations of the world. 2. Sensation a. Energy stimulates a receptor cell in a sense organ. i. Receptor cell- specialized cell that responds to a particular type of energy b. Receptor sends a signal along sensory nerves to the appropriate area of the cerebral cortex.
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How does the brain distinguish between different types of stimuli? Sensory messages enter the brain on different channels. Absolute threshold- minimum intensity of phys energy required to produce any sensation at all f. Sensitivity to light, sound, pressure, or other stimuli varies from person to person and even from moment to moment in same person g. Absolute threshold set at point detectable 50% of time i. Taste- 1 gram of table s alt in 500 liters of water ii. Smell- 1 drop of perfume diffused throughout a 6-room apartment iii. Touch- wing of a bee falling on cheek from height of 1 centimeter iv. Hearing- tick of a watch from 20 ft away in very quiet conditions v. Vision- a candle flame from 30 miles on a clear, dark night vi. These are all in ideal conditions. h. Sensory adaptation- adjustment of your senses to the level of stimulation they are receiving i. Difference threshold- AKA just noticeable difference- smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50% of time j. Varies according to strength/intensity of original stimulus Sight a. Retina- lining of eye that contains receptor cells that are sensitive to light b. Rods- receptor cells in retina responsible for night vision and perception of brightness c. Cones- receptor cells in retina responsible for color vision d. Fovea- the area of retina that is center of visual field e. Visual adaptation - sensitivity of rods and cones changes according to how much light is available f. Dark adaptation- rods and cones become more sensitive to light in response to lowered levels of illumination g. Light adaptation- rods and cones become less sensitive to light in response to increased levels of illumination Hearing a. Sound waves- changes in pressure caused when molecules of air or fluid collide with one another and then move apart again b. Frequency- number of cycles per second in a wave, in sound, primary determinant in pitch c. Pitch- auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone. d. Amplitude- magnitude of a wave, primary determinant of loudness, measured in decibels e. Timbre- mixture of sound waves that allows us to know what or who is producing it, a duck has a different timbre than a horse f. Hearing undergoes adaptation so that it can function optimally under a wide variety of conditions. g. Ear anatomy i. Outer ear- gathers, delivers sound to middle ear ii. Middle ear- amplifies, concentrates sounds iii. Inner ear- receptor cells h. Hearing disorders
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Caused by injury, infections, cigarette smoking, explosions, long-term exposure to loud noises, etc. 1. Conduction deafness- middle ear deafness 2. Nerve deafness- inner ear deafness Smell (olfaction) a. Olfactory epithelium- mucus membrane containing small receptors b. Of all our senses, smell is most primitive and evocative c. We rarely receive odors as neutral. d. We can detect over 10,000 separate smells. Taste (Gustation) a. To understand taste, you must distinguish it from flavor b. Primary tastes i. Sweet ii. Salty iii. Bitter iv. Sour c. Recently investigators have found evidence for three additional tastes i. Astringent ii. Umami (delicioius, d. Flavor comes from the relationship with smell
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