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- Title: aging--final!
- Type: Notes
- School: Washington
- Course: SPAN 488
- Term: Fall
Kusumo Teasya Psychology 462 Term Paper Topic Topic: Aging and Memory Is it true thatas as a person is agesging, he/ or she will have impaired memory recollection? According to many past research studies, memory is defined as process of putting information together through encoding, as well as the ability to retrieve the information in memory (CITE). Researchers measure memory by testing the subject on recognition or recall tasks. According to past research studies, older adults that is, adults above 50 years old h have difficulty with memory tasks (CITE). Specifically, researchers have found that older adults have problems with putting information together during encoding memory tasks (CITE). in biBinding pieces of information together during encoding, known asinto complex memories associative memorization, allows adults to form complex memories (CITE). and aStudies have shown that older adults can form complex memories, but that they are less able to bind features together to form new associations (CITE), and to integrate informationtems with their contexts of occurrencecontextual clues (CITE). These older adults also have a deficiency in consciously recalling an event as it was originally experienced, known as episodic memory. The problem with episodic memory lies in chunking that is, grouping meaningful individual pieces of information from an experience or event. In this paper, I will discuss one study that shows older adults have deficit in the associative retrieval process (Cohn, Emrich, & Moscovitch, 2008) and as a result, they are unable to recollect information accurately. Another study done by Naveh-Benjamin, Cowan, kilb, and Chen (2007) will show because older adults use less chunking during encoding and retrieval, they didn t do well in recollection tasks. A third study done by Castel and Craik (2003) will show that older adults have similar attention spans as younger adults under divided attention during encoding tasks. Past rResearch studies in the past wouldhave addressed these issuesquestions of about the deficit in associative memory for by examining it solely in older adults. t. OnHowever, the recent studies that I will examine have begun to e of the studyies will measure the associative memory of older adults in comparedison to younger adults during the encoding and retrieval processes. By comparing two different populations, we can figure out how aging will have an effect on how information is being processed and kept in memory. Many researchers in the past have found that older adults have impaired association memory because of what happens during encoding and retrieving information. In the Cohn, Emrich, and Moscovitch, (2008) study, researchers wanted to find out if binding at encoding and impairment in strategic retrieval process during retrieval has an effect in poor associative memory in an older adult. The purpose of the experiment was to find out if older adult have impaired binding in all associative tasks, impaired strategic retrieval process, and general recollection deficit in their process of recollection. The researchers recruited 24 young adults (mean age = 20 years old) and 24 older adults (mean age = 70 years old). In the study phase the subjects were shown 126 noun word pairs and were told to remember them in that pairing (A-B or C-D). The word pair was presented for 5 seconds each and they were to generate a sentence aloud if they saw two words made meaningful word combination. In the test phase, there would be 4 different ways the pair words were presented. The first way was the new pairs composed of nonstudied words (X-X), the second way was half-old (A-X), the third way was rearranged pairs composed of new pairings of studied words (A-D or C-B), and the fourth way was intact pairs composed of studied pairs (A-B or C-D). The participants had to do 2 tasks, the associative recognition task where they only need to respond to old intact pairs and pair recognition task where they had to respond old rearranged and intact pairs. The result of the study showed that older adults could do minimal binding during encoding phase as long as the test condition were minimally demanding (associative reinstatement and recall-to-accept). Older adults have minimum general recollection deficit compared to young adults. However they were highly impaired in retrieving information in highly demanded task (associative identification and recall-to-reject). This shows pronounced strategic retrieval failure. To further examine the strategic retrieval failure in older adults and to examine the second time how well the older adults will do in the recall-to-accept task, the second experiment was conducted. The second experimenters hypothesized that older adults would do worse on recalling the studied associated of either one of the two words in each rearranged pair (accurate recall-toreject) and finding out how the older adults do in the recall-to-accept phase (recall the sentence generated during study for each of the intact pairs). The method for the second experiment was similar to the first experiment except that sentences generated by participants were recorded during the study phase and test phase. In the test phase, participants performed an associative recognition test. They were given pair items and they were to answer old for intact pairs or new for rearranged and nonstudied pairs. If they answered old item for intact pair (recall-to-accept), they were asked further to recall the sentence they had created during the study. If they answered new item for rearranged pair (recall toreject), they were asked to recall the original pair word during the study. The result of the study show that older adults did worse in paired-word recall and sentence recall compared to young adults. Older adults show greater deficit in recalling the correct words in the rearranged pair condition than in recalling the sentences in the intact pair condition. Another important finding was that even with half of the correct responses from the young adult, they still could not recall either the correct pairing or sentence generation. Older adults can do binding during encoding because they were able to do well when asked to recognize intact pairs without recalling them. However when recollection is needed to remember the item in experiment two, older adults did much worse in recalling the associative information for each item than younger adults. Even though binding may be reduced, it is not absent in older adults. Thus, deficit in binding at encoding is not sufficient to explain age-related deficits in associative memory. Older adults do have impaired strategic retrieval process because they have a harder time recalling associative identification pair words. Many researchers hypothesize that older adults have poorer memory because of a deficiency in storing and retrieving links between single units of information. Older adults did poorly on associative information than item information a process of recognizing or recalling one item at one time compared to younger adults. Aging can be one of the factors that reduce the conscious attentional resources. Thus older adults will have difficulty binding new information together to form new associations and integrating the new items within their context of occurrence. At the same time, divided-attention can lower performance in young adults because of the impairment in associating the items during the encoding phase. A further study done by Castel and Craik (2003) compared the effects of aging with divided attention in young adults on the recognition of item and associative information. The purpose of the study was to compare the effects of aging on recognition of item and associative information and to compare the effects of divided attention on item and associative information. In the Castel and Craik (2003) study, researchers asked 64 young adults (mean age = 21 years old) and 32 older adults (mean age = 70 years old). The young adults were randomly divided into two groups in either the full-attention condition or to the divided-attention condition. Older adults only performed the full-attention condition. All groups were given 130 noun word pairs in the visual form and each pair of noun was presented for 4 seconds. Only the young adults in divided attention were given distracter task during the phase. study During the distracter task, the participants were to listen to the recording of digits and to identify sequences that contained three consecutive odd digits and repeat them out loud. During the test phase, each group was given two recognition tasks. The first test was the word-pair recognition test, where the participants were to answer yes if the word pair matched with the word pair in the study phase and no if it did not. The second test, single-word recognition test, subjects were to say yes if they saw the second word in the present word pair matched with any words during the study phase. The result of the study showed that the young adult in divided attention and older adult did worse in both recognition tests compared to the young adult. However, older adult did much worse compared to young adult in divided attention in word-pair recognition test. To find out if young adults in divided attention have similar attention span with older adult, a second experiment was conducted that focus on young adult only. The young adults were divided into three groups. The first group will have full attention at both encoding and recognition, the second group will have divided attention at encoding and full attention at recognition, and the third group will have divided attention at encoding and recognition. The groups were only tested on pair word recognition test. The result of the experiment showed that young adult in full attention made very few false alarm and greater hit. Both two divided-attention young adults have lower hit rates and made little false alarm reaction. Another experiment was conducted on older adults in measuring on pair word recognition. The result of the study showed that older adult chose false alarm. Older adults have low discriminability (hits minus false alarms) Divided attention and aging are similar in a way that they both associated with a decline in recollection but older adults have greater reliance on familiarity because they made many more false alarm compared to young adults in full attention or young adults in divided attention. This study found that older adults have problems in binding new information during the encoding phase and they also relied heavily on familiarity of the items during retrieval process to make judgment. There is a declined in memory capacity for older adults compared to the young adults. Comparing three groups where the first group will consist of young adult with full attention, the second group young adult doing dual task during the list presentation, and the third group is older adults with full attention. Researchers recruited 60 younger adults (mean age = 19 years old) and 30 older adults (mean age = 71 years old). Half of the younger adults were given a divided-attention task during the study phase. There were three trials all the participant had to do and all of the trials were similar. In each trial, there were a study phase followed by immediate list recall task and delayed cuedrecall task. In one trial in the study phase, the participants were giving five lists with four word pairs in each list. Each pair was presented for two seconds. After each list was presented, the list recall task was given and participants were to remember the four word pairs in order they were presented during the study phase. Then the cued-recall task (one word was presented and the participants were to remember the other missing pair) was given. Only the young adults in divided attention were given distracter task where when they heard one tone out of three possible tones, they were to press a key on the keyboard to match with tone during the study phase. The result of list recall could be calculated in two ways. One way is the strict serial scoring method the correct response was counted if participants reported the answers in the same exact position as the study phase or the free scoring method the correct response was counted if participants reported the answers from words in the study phase regardless the serial position. The researchers found that young adult in divided attention used more chunking in the strict serial scoring method compared to young adult in full attention and older adult. It also found that older adult used very little chunking in free scoring method compared to both young adult groups. The result for the cued-recall task showed that younger adult in full attention did much better in recalling the correct words compared to young adult in divided attention and older adults. However, halfway through the cued-recall task, younger adult in the divided attention s score improve and the scores came closer to the young adult in full attention s scores. While older adults didn t improve at all and scored lower than the other two groups. The result of the list recall task showed that young adults in divided attention and older adults did worse compare to the young adults in full attention. Chunking is a process where you associate new information with past world knowledge. Older adults have problem in creating and retrieving links between single units of information. Associative deficit could result in failure of retrieving and used previously learned associations between items. Failure in using previously knowledge to associate them with new items and the second one will be failure to form a new association between the new items. Strategic process was needed to oppose a sense of familiarity to reject the rearranged items Adult have impaired recollection recall and conscious retrieval of associative information regarding an event s occurrence and intact familiarity general and relatively automatic feelings of oldness of items (Cohn, Emrich, & Moscovitch, 2008). Associative identification is ability to discriminate novel items from combination of old items that they previously studied Associative identification needs recall-like process at retrieval to overcome familiarity and adult was said to be impaired in this process Associative reinstatement In one of the studies, researchers recruited two groups of people, young adult (range from age 20-35) to older adult (40-65 years old). The subjects were tested on their episodic memory where the researchers measure the subjects memory on source, context, modality, temporal order, location, or items pair. In this study, the subjects were tested on how well they can remember 2 items list compared to single item list. The result of the study show that older adults are more disadvantaged on memory tests of associations especially on two list items than with single item list compared to young adults. The second research study was testing the participants recognition and recall ability after learning new items in the study phase. In order to well in recognition test, the subjects need to have intact learning skill of associating items together into complex memory. The result of the second study showed that younger and older adult have similar score for recall test, however, young adult did much better on recognition test compared to older adult. In this paper, I will talk about how associative memorization is one of the causes for older adult to have deficit in memorization. Similar with young adult under divided attention. Problem in binding information during encoding and retrieving information. Their use of chunking was much smaller thus, they have problem in encoding the information in associative pairing and failure to retrieve those associative words. References Castel, A. D., & Craik, F. I. M. (2003). The effects of aging and divided attention on memory for item and associative information. Psychology and Aging, 18, 873-885. Cohn, M., Emrich, S. M., & Moscovitch, M. (2008). Age-related deficits in associative memory: The influence of impaired strategic retrieval. Psychology and Aging, 23, 93-103 Naveh-Benjamin, M., Cowan, N., Kilb, A., & Chen, Z. (2007). Age-related differences in immediate serial recall: Dissociating chunk formation and capacity. Memory and Cognition, 35, 724-737. Cerella, J., Onyper, S. V., & Hoyer, W. J. (2006). The associative-memory basis of cognitive skill learning: Adult age differences. Psychology and Aging, 21, 483-498. Old, S. R., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2008). Differential effects of age on item and associative measures of memory: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 23, 104-118.
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