Sheet Study ANTH 1013 Third exam
A list of terms and concepts introduce in class and the readings that are
"fair
game" for Exam #3.
Eoanthropus dawsoni: also known as the "Piltdown Man"; found by Sir Grafton Smith in Liverpool in 1912-13; supposedly proved that "missing link" was an Englishman, not an African; it was a modern human skull with an ape jaw; confirmed Darwin's idea that fundamental human trait was increase in brain size; it turned out to be a hoax by Martin Hinton; it was believed because the process of human evolution accepted then was 1) Big skull, 2) Humanlike jaw, 3) Come out of trees --> shows that biases and preconceptions are dangerous Raymond Dart: in 1925, discovered first Australopithecus africanus (which means "Southern Ape of Africa") in South Africa; the specimen he found was known as the Taung child; it had a small skull and humanlike teeth (opposite of the Piltdown Man); he claimed it was proof that human beings evolved in Africa, not Europe, and he was ignored; used the foramen magnum as evidence of bipedalism Robert Broom: Dart's partner in discovering the Taung Child, he continued digging and during the WWII era at a different cave site in S. Africa, he found skeletons (adults and babies) that were clearly walking on two legs, at least two species of australopithecines, maybe more; proved humans evolved in Africa; knock-kneed (Valgus knee) so they could stand on one leg at a time if they wanted Changes in locomotion as critical to hominin origins. Note how bias and preconception can color our interpretations of the fossil record: The Piltdown Man was so widely accepted for so long because it fit preconceived notions of human evolution, and the Taung child was rejected even though it was actually an early human ancestor. Trends in the hominin fossil record: 1) The evolution of bipedalism: -First evidence: 5.8 mya (Ardipithecus ramidus), but pieces are scrappy and small; -First good evidence: 4.1-3.9 mya with first member of Australopithecus -Lucy: we have her footprints; she retained curved fingers and toes, long arms, probably came out of trees to get between trees; brain size about 400 cc (upper end of living chimp) -First members of Homo (H. erectus): 1.8-1.7 mya: full commitment to terrestriality; look very much like skeleton of modern human; no evidence of living in the trees -So, to sum up: 6 mya, split with chimps; 4 mya, efficient bipedalism but still use trees; 1.8 mya, completely terrestrial 2) Exploitation of a terrestrial habitat: dterrestrial habitat becomes increasintly important over time until 1.8-1.7 when all their resources are terrestrial 3) Increasing brain size/complexity over time:
-1st undisputed human ancestor brain size: 400 cc (Lucy) -Next, 600 cc (A. africanus) -2 mya: 700 cc (earliest members of Homo) -1.5/1.6 mya: 1000 cc -evolutions random, not directional; larger brain sizes not necessarily "better" evolutionarily 4) Manipulation of natural objects and motor skills/increased reliance on tools: -1st evidence of tools: 2.7/2.6 mya, bashing rocks together; cut marks on animal bones in places where muscles attach, also evidence of blunt trauma -Acheulean: 1.7-1.4 mya; hand axes, require whole order of thought; also used wood, bone, plant fiber, but only evidence on stone tools -Changes in hand structure: opposable thumb, saddle-shaped trapezium (joint between thumb and wrist), gave us precision grip; first evidence of this: 2.4 mya in H. habilis 5) Increased reliance on meat: not necessary, but natural -1.7-1.8 mya, lots of bones with cut marks -700,000 ya, cooking Ardipithecus ramidus: first fossils where we have a good chunk of evidence (feet, pretty good skeleton); definitely upright posture; more sexual dimorphism (in male canines) than any other human ancestor, but less than chimps Ethiopia 4.4 Ma Primitive traits: large canines thin tooth enamel: means that they weren't exploiting terrestrial habitat and eating harder foods separated big toe Derived traits: forward foramen magnum canines smaller than apes human-like arm elements Australopithecus anamensis: earliest hominin with thick tooth enamel; dental arcade forms arch instead of parabola; flatter teeth (like humans)
Kenya 4.1-3.9 Ma Primitive traits: thick canines arm swinging elements Derived traits: thick tooth enamel bipedal valgus knee: we can tell because top of tibia is just like humans, but not as strong as ours Australopithecus afarensis: LUCY; long-lived, successful species, so we have lots of fossils; humanlike dental arch, thick enamel, flat molars, reduced canines, even in males, compared with those who came before, but still relatively large; skull very chimp-like, but teeth more like humans; extremely long arms relative to legs; fingers and toes long and curved (which occurs during lifetime) Ethiopia to Tanzania (E. Africa) 3.7-3.0 Ma Primitive traits: prognathic face: snout which juts out, like chimp rather than us big canines small brain (400-450 cc): at upper end of chimp range Derived traits: footprints: fairly slow, short stride bipedal leg anatomy (Valgus knee, hipbone) big toe in line Australopithecus africanus: TAUNG CHILD; snout doesn't jut out as much as afarensis; developing forehead; more humanlike pelvis, Valgus knee, but retention of arm mobility/length South Africa 3-2.5 Ma (just after afarensis) Traits: 530-600 cc cranial capacity: first evidence of increased brain size greater than chimpanzee more human like canines (no dimorphism) and premolars but divergent big toe
Note relationships: A. ramidus ?A. anamensisA. afarensis A. africanus. "Robust" australopith traits: heavy dished midface sagittal crest in males and big chewing muscles big molars incisors in a straight line Paranthropus aethiopicus: no postcranial fossil evidence Kenya & Ethiopia 2.5-2.3 Ma Primitive traits: prognathic snout small brain (410 cc) large front teeth Derived traits: sagittal crest: for large temporalis muscle, which controls jaw; used for crushing hard objects or repetitive motion; only found in males dished midface big molars Paranthropus boisei: named after Charles Boise; flatter, more orthognathic face; "monstrously large teeth" (larger than a nickel) Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya 1.3-2.2 mya Traits: dished midface 500-530 cc brain small incisors big molars sagittal crest (only in males) mixed arboreal/terrestrial postcranials
Paranthropus robustus: S. African variant of boisei; face is flatter; teeth not quite as massive, but very thick molars; spend time in trees and on ground South Africa 1.8-1.5 Ma Traits: face Dished sagittal crest in males large molars small incisors 530 cc brain
Relationships: A. afarensisP. aethiopicus(P. boisei and P. robustus).
Early Homo: Trends away from Australopithecus: 1) Brain enlargement 2) Acquisition of culture 3) Reduction of emphasis on mastication for food prep (smaller teeth) 4) Bipedal gait Features of Homo clade: 1) Thickening of skull bones 2) Reduced postorbital constriction 3) Increased occipital area in back of skull; lengthening of cranial saggital arc length 4) Increased cranial vault height 5) More anterior foramen magnum 6) Face gets flatter (reduced prognathism) 7) Narrower tooth crowns, especially mandibular molars 8) Reduced length of molar row H. habilis and H. rudolfensis: -H. habilis is the HANDYMAN
-at Koobi Fora, Kenya, both habilis and rudolfensis were found; the rudolfensis specimen is ER 1470, which had a really big brain, and the habilis specimen is ER 1813, which had a smaller brain -in Sterkfontein, South Africa, teeth and a skull of H. habilis were found -Characteristics of both: 2.4 ma -1.5 Ma, 513-750 cc brain, modern-like foot and hand (wide, flat fingertips, huge bone that flexes your thumb; big toe falls in like with others), relatively long arms & short legs (like chimps) Olduvai Gorge Tanzania Distinguish Homo habilis from Homo rudolfensis: H. habilis smaller brain (610 cc), incipient supraorbital torus H. rudolfensis larger body and brain with no supraorbital torus
occipital enlargement, everted nasal margins wide upper face compared with midface with salient nasal sill 2-rooted upper premolars, reduction of 3rd molar primitive postcranials; some retain climbing ability in hind foot and femur 3-rooted premolars and large anterior teeth more advanced postcranials, especially hind foot and femur
Relationships: A. africanus early Homo, Olduwan tools (= flakes).
Understand debates: the hunters versus the hunted. Dart's Osteodentokeratic culture, C.K. Brain and Taphonomy at Swartkrans, the Leopard Hypothesis, Carnivore accumulations and cave formation. In East Africa the debate is: Home Bases and Hunting and Gathering scenario versus Scavenging Hypothesis, carnivore marks and tool cutmarks, distribution of body parts at sites. Understand the debates and issues.
Homo erectus: Geographical/time range: South Africa: 1.8-1.5 mya (OLDEST) 1.6 - 0.6 Ma in Africa (Koobi Fora; Oldovai; West Turkana) 1.7 Ma on Java in China and Georgia (China: 460-420 kya; Georgia: 900 kya)
Asian and African = one variable species, Acheulian hand axes (@1.4Ma), note evident stasis for @ 1 Million years, Homo erectus anatomical trends: Average of 1000 cc brain size
supraorbital torus (bony, thick area over eye orbits) thick skull bones smaller front teeth than earlier Homo human-like postcrania 5'6" average, 128 lbs, note Bergmanns & Allen's rules for African specimens: narrow thorax with higher stature is more efficient for thermal regulation narrow thoracic neural canal, narrow pelvis, brains show little evidence of language, culture as a strategy for surviving, cooperative hunting, base camps, more advanced material cultural attributes.
Homo heidelbergensis: (700-130) Kya large arched brow ridges thick cranial walls big chinless jaw with large teeth cranial capacity > 1000cc rounded occipital bone These critters are found in Africa, Europe and Asia Understand variation within this species: the "muddle in the middle" Acheulian culture
Bilzingsleben shows fire housing structures hunting camps seasonality lots of resources Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) (130-35 Ka) Engis Cave Liege, Belgium (1829-1830) Forbes Quarry/Gibraltar (1848); Feldhofer Cave Neander Valley, Germany.
Homo neanderalensis Europe: Belgium, France, Croatia (Krapina =800 bones of >14 individuals) Crimea, Hungary, Italy Middle East: Israel (Tabun, Amud, Kebara) Uzbekistan Iraq (Shanidar) Long, low thin walled crania with 1520 cc average big nose double arched brow ridge no chin big incisors barrel-shaped chest thick limb bones 5'4" long pelvis for birth
Incisors suggest teeth as tools cold climate adaptations language? locomotion human-like burial fancy tools pigments Anatomically modern humans Understand the following theories: 1) Regional continuity = Candelabra 2) Out of Africa = Noahs Ark
Modern humans: 1350-1400 cc average Rounded occipital slight browridge non-projecting midface chin gracile jaw/teeth gracile limb bones Mitochondrial DNA why not use nuclear DNA? Eve hypothesis - we can trace all of our mitochondrial DNA to single mitochondrial type (not 1 single woman); micodondrial DNA split 174,000 years ago; not enough variation for regional continuity note African variation great split @100-200 ka,. (mitochondrial?) Lartet (1868) Ided Cro-Magnon rock shelter - note significance @30 Ka
Neandertals at Arcy-sur-Cure @ 35Ka Intermediate central European guys @ 40 Ka Australia Lake Mungo @ 30 South Africa: 130-74 Ka Israel: 90-100 Ka. Note: Earliest in South Africa, evidence in Middle East 90-100 Ka, precede Neandertals there! Consider the implications of this evidence for the "Out of Africa" versus the "Regional Continuity" model.
Upper Paleolithic in Europe Art/symbolism explosion Note environment Eurasian tundra and steppe: lots of large mammals to eat. Note upper Paleolithic stone tools, as well as bone, ivory and antler, Note: portable art (e.g., venus figurines, note cave paintings in Europe (also note cave/rock shelter paintings in Africa, Australia, etc., and ornamental jewelry in Asia), Define Symbolism: discuss the role of language in modern human origins. Also, define language and consider both internal and external aspects (be able to define these, and discuss evidence). Note: hypoglossal nerve size, and position of the larynx and tongue mobility. What are the implications of this for modern humans?
Gender: note biological/physiological differences between males and females Note that gender roles are culturally defined Race: division of species differing from others by gene frequencies drift may initiate but selection is most important to maintain/create racial differences note: some genetic contact necessary to maintain genepool integrity. Requires adaptation to local conditions very limited geneflow (do we qualify in this way... not!) Is Race a useful concept?
Gives some historical context to species history but not useful in us 75% human genes monomorphic 6-7% human variation explained by race (most variation cross-cuts race) note social significance and racism... note social responsibility and biological anthropology!