creationist Genesis: theory; universe revolves around us and we are the masters; nothing varies, nothing changes; all forms are fixed Aristotle: the "anti-Darwin"; held back natural sciences for more than 2,000 years; showed minimized variation as imperfections which should be ignored Copernicus: Polish mathematician who posited the heliocentric model of the universe Ptolemy: ancient Greek astronomer who posited the geocentric model of the universe (that Earth is the center and everything revolves around it) heliocentric: the sun is the center of the solar system; posited by Copernicus secularism: view that religious beliefs should be excluded from civic affairs or public institutions binomial nomenclature: in taxonomy, the convention established by Carolus Linnaeus whereby genus and species names are used to refer to species Linnaeus: came up with binomial nomenclature; Swedish naturalist; classification system (Systema Naturae); believed in fixity of species; first named Homo sapiens Buffon: French count; recognized dynamic relationship between external environment and living forms; stressed the importance of change; rejected the idea that one species could give rise to another; evidence: presence of vestigial organs Erasmus Darwin: grandfather of Charles; view that life originated in the seas and that all species had descended from a common ancestor; importance of the environment in evolutionary processes, vast expanses of time for life to evolve, competition for resources; accrued advantages (ex. opposable thumbs--gradual evolution from simple to complex forms) immutability of species: idea that species don't change (opposite of evolution); widely accepted for a long time Lamarck: first European scientist to attempt to explain the evolutionary process; codified the concept of the inheritance of acquired characteristics; considered the father of evolution by French; used giraffe example uniformitarianism: the theory that the earth's features are the result of long-term processes that continue to operate in the present as they did in the past; elaborated on by Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and provided for immense geological time Malthus: population can grow until its resources are exhausted; impulse to multiply is checked by the struggle for existence; population growth checked by food running out Lyell: Darwin's mentor; codified uniformitarianism; we can figure out how long changes took to occur Old Earth: Earth is really, really old...like 4.5 billion years Charles Darwin: Anglican clergyman who wanted to explore nature so set up a voyage on the HMS Beagle; he charted the Galapagos Islands and gathered fossils, plants, and animals for British museums; found 13 species of finches on the islands, but only 1 on the coast of Ecuador; in 1859 he published the Origins of Species about his theories Natural selection: the mechanism of evolutionary change first articulated by Charles Darwin; refers to genetic change or changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential reproductive success between individuals; survival of the fittest Wallace: had some idea of natural selection; he was going to scoop Darwin so they worked together; 1 st unifying theory of biology common descent: descent from a common ancestor gradualism: species evolve slowly over long periods of time prokaryotic cells: no nucleus; now blue-green algae eukaryotic cells: most cells today; complex, with a nucleus nucleus: a structure (organelle) found in all eukaryotic cells; the nucleus contains chromosomes (nuclear DNA) mitochondria: structures contained within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that convert energy, derived from nutrients, into a form that is used by the cell cytoplasm: the portion of the cell contained within the cell membrane, excluding the nucleus; the cytoplasm consists of a semifluid material and contains numerous structures involved with cell function ribosomes: structures composed of a form of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein; ribosomes are found in the cell's cytoplasm and are essential to the manufacture of proteins gametes: reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) developed from precursor cells in ovaries and testes
somatic cells: basically, all the cells in the body except those involved with reproduction chromosomes: discrete structures composed of DNA and protein found only in the nuclei of cells; chromosomes are only visible under magnification during certain phases of cell division chromatin: the loose, diffuse form of DNA seen during interphase; when it condenses, chromatin forms into chromosomes centromeres: the constricted portion of a chromosome; after replication, the two strands of a doublestranded chromosome are joined at the centromere karyotype: the chromosomal complement of an individual or that which is typical for a species; usually displayed in a photomicrograph, the chromosomes are arranged in pairs and according to size and position of the centromere; photographic record of human chromosomes chromatids: 2 separate parts of a chromosome which are essentially identical to one another mitosis: simple cell division; the process by which somatic cells divide to produce two identical daughter cells meiosis (reduction and multiplication phases): cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes; meiosis involves two divisions and results in four daughter cells, each containing only half the original number of chromosomes, these cells can develop into gametes; reduction phase = meiosis 1 spermatogenesis: formation of sperm oogenesis: origin and development of the ovum polar body: part that branches off during telophase I and is lost recombination (crossing over): the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis XX: female XY: male DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): the double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code; DNA is a main component of chromosomes nucleotides (deoxyribose, phosphate, nitrogenous base): basic units of the DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of four DNA bases hydrogen bonds: bonds between basees adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine: four bases in DNA DNA replication: dissolve the hydrogen bonds in the middle and pull the two halves apart; then each base bonds with a free nucleotide; each DNA strand = 1 chromatid base-pairing rule: A pairs with T, G pairs with C Amino acids (20 but we produce 12): small molecules that are the components of proteins peptide bonds: chemical bond formed between carboxyl and amino acid polypeptide chains: a sequence of amino acids that may act alone or in combination with others as a functional protein proteins: three-dimensional molecules that serve a wide variety of functions through their ability to bind to ther molecules protein synthesis: the assembly of chains of amino acids into functional protein molecules; the process is directed by DNA triplet code: 4 DNA bases code in groups of 3 to produce amino acids; each set of 3 is called a codon RNA: a single-stranded molecule, similar in structure to DNA; three forms of RNA are essential to protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA); different from DNA in that it is single-stranded, it has ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose, it has uracil instead of thymine, and it can and does pass through the nuclear membrane transcription: the DNA molecule unzips itself and free nucleotides are attracted to it, but of the RNA variety; RNA breaks off DNA molecule as a strand of m(essenger)RNA translation: mRNA goes to ribosome to tell it to make protein gene: a sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product; a gene may be made up of hundreds or thousands of DNA bases organized into coding and noncoding segments locus: the position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs; the term is sometimes used interchangeably with gene, but this usage is technically incorrect
allele: alternate forms of a gene; alleles occur at the same locus on homologous chromosomes and thus govern the same trait; however, because they are different, their action may result in different expressions of that trait; the term is sometimes used synonymously with gene amino acid sequence: determined by bases point mutation: substitutions; most common type; one base substitutes for another (ex. thymine instead of adenine) to cause sickle-cell anemia sickle-cell anemia: a severe inherited hemoglobin disorder that results from inheriting two copies of a mutant allele; this allele results from a single base substitution in the DNA inheritance: pangenesis: miniature particles in reproductive fluids joined together to form a new kid homunculus theory: preformed little person present in the sperm of a man and women are just the ovens Mendel: Augustinian monk trained in botany who came up with the basic principles of modern genetics hybrids: the offspring of two animals or plants of different breeds, varieties, species, or genera, esp. as produced through human manipulation for specific genetic characteristics. purebred: an organism of ummixed lineage blending theory; F1 generation F2 generation law of segregation: genes (alleles) occur in pairs (because chromosomes occur in pairs); during gamete production, the members of each gene pair separate, that so each gamete contains one member of each pair; during fertilization, the full number of chromosomes is restored, and members of gene or allele pairs are reunited recessive: describing a trait that is not expressed in heterozygotes; also refers to the allele that governs the trait; for a recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies of the allele heterozygote: having different alleles at the same locus on members of a chromosome pair homozygote: having the same allele at the same locus on both members of a chromosome pair dominant: describing a trait governed by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another, different allele (i.e. in heterozygotes); dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual; genotype can refer to an organism's entire genetic makeup or to the alleles at a particular location phenotype: the observable or detectable physical characteristics of an organism; the detectable expressions of genotypes Punnett Square: diagram used to predict allele frequency AA, Aa, aa, A, a: gamete/dominant/recessive stuff law of independent assortment: the distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair; the genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another dihybrid cross: hybridization using two traits with two alleles each ABO blood group: example of codominant traits; A and B are both dominant, O is recessive codominance: the expression of two alleles in heterozygotes; in this situation, neither allele is dominant or recessive; thus, both influence the phenotype nonindependent assortment (linked genes): Mendelian traits: characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus; examples include many blood types, such as ABO; many genetic disorders, including sickle-cell anemia and Tay-Sachs disease, are also Mendelian traits autosomal traits (e.g. albinism, brachydactyly): carried on one of first 22 chromosomes sex-linked traits (e.g. hemophilia): if x-linked, can't get it from Dad, and if y-linked, can't get it from Mom polygenic inheritance (e.g "continuous" traits): show continuous variation; controlled by more than one gene modern synthesis: posited by Sir Julian Huxley; variation is produced and redistributed and natural selection acts on this; change in allele frequencies = evolution microevolution: small changes occurring within species, such as a change in allele frequencies macroevolution: changes produced only after many generations, such as the appearance of a new species phenotypic effects of mutations:
gene flow (=migration): exchange of genes between populations genetic drift (=sampling error): evolutionary changes--that is, changes in allele frequencies--produced by random factors; genetic drift is a result of small population size founder effect: a type of genetic drift in which allele frequencies are altered in small populations that are taken from, or are remnants of, larger populations; Pitcairn Island: Alexander Smith is literally its father genetic bottleneck: environmental change: peppered moths: change their appearance because of pollution differential reproductive success: Malaria (and sickle cell anemia): sickle cells are genetically favorable in places where malaria is prominent balanced polymorphism: the maintenance of two or more alleles in a population due to the selective advantage of the heterozygote human variation: race, height, etc.; anthropology tries to explain these differences; Blumenbach's 5 categories of ppl polygenic traits (e.g. skin color, hair texture, eye color): traits that are influenced by genes at two or more loci; examples of such traits are stature, skin color, and eye color; many polygenic traits are also influenced by environmental factors species: a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring; members of one species are reproductively isolated from members of all other species (i.e. they cannot mate with them to produce fertile offspring) polytypic species: referring to species composed of populations that differ with regard to the expression of one or more traits population: within a species, a community of individuals where mates are usually found genetics: the study of gene structure and action and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring, genetic mechanisms are the underlying foundation for evolutionary change Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (p2 + 2pq + q2 =1), p, q: the mathematical relationship expressing-- under ideal conditions--the predicted distribution of alleles in populations; the central theorem of population genetics; p is equal to the dominant allele; q is equal to the recessive allele genotypic frequency: allelic frequency: in a population, the percentage of all the alleles at a locus accounted for by one specific allele phenotype frequency: expected frequencies vs. actual frequencies: polymorphisms: loci with more than one allele; polymorphisms can be expressed in the phenotype as the result of gene action (as in ABO) or they can exist solely at the DNA level within noncoding regions antigens: immune response A B O family trees clines: a gradual change in the frequency of genotypes and phenotypes from one geographical region to another clinal distribution of traits phenotypic plasticity/acclimatization: physiological adjustment to changes in the environment that occur during an individual's lifetime; such responses may be temporary or permanent, depending on the duration of the environmental change and when in the individual's life it occurs; the capacity for acclimatization may typify an entire species or population, and because it is under genetic influence, it is subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection or genetic drift skin color and solar radiation: skin color darker where solar radiation is stronger melanin: serves to absorb UV radiation sunburn skin cancer:
vitamin D production and deficiency: vitamin D produced by intake of UV radiation, so needs to be a balance of melanin; vitamin D deficiency causes rickets temperature/humidity and phenotypic response cultural responses (e.g. fire, clothes, shelter) Bergmann's Rule: surface-to-volume ratios; smaller objects have relatively larger surface area compared to volume; if you're bigger, you want to live in the Arctic because less of you is exposed to the elements Allen's Rule (see Eskimo, Maasi): limb length longer at equator, shorter at poles because moving blood to extremities easier when you're not cold adaptability high-altitude stress: lower air pressure, less oxygen, babies there are smaller and placentas are bigger to get more oxygen to fetuses; increased red blood cell production oxygen deprivation (=hypoxia): lack of oxygen; hypoxia can refer to reduced amounts of available oxygen in the atmosphere (due to lowered barometric pressure) or to insufficient amounts of oxygen in the body migrant model: used to study altitude effects on populations which have moved dietary adaptations: big change from hunter-gatherer to domestication; we evolved lactase because we started to drink more milk lactose tolerance (note pastoralists): the inability to digest fresh milk products, caused by the discontinued production of lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose, or milk sugar genetic diseases: ex: hemophilia metabolic diseases: not getting the right nutrients; ex. scurvy degenerative diseases: related to lifestyle; ex. arthritis, Alzheimer's malignancies: cancer infections: malaria settlement patterns and airborne infections bubonic plague major histocompatibility complex (on chromosome 6): controls immune responses foreign antigens B-cells T-cells antibodies (immunoglobins): proteins that are produced by some types of immune cells and that serve as major components of the immune system; antibodies recognize and attach to foreign antigens on bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens; then other immune cells destroy the invading organism immunity artificial radiation (nuclear weapons, waste, x-rays) natural radiation (cosmic rays, radium, thorium) mutagens chemical mutagens population crowding/density growth: increase in number of cells or size of cells hyperplasia: increase in number of cells hypertrophy: increase in size of cells development: differentiation of cells into different types of tissues in maturation human bone growth: affected by when it starts and how long it lasts stature: affected by diet/nutrition brain growth (25% at birth, 50% at 6 months, 75% at 2.5 years, 90% at 5 years, 95% at 10 years): humans have two brain growth spurts: 1 before birth, 1 after nutrition: essential amino acids: make up proteins; we only make 10 and we need 20 carbohydrates: energy lipids: made up of fatty acids and alcohols; source of stored energy vitamins: co-factors of enzymes minerals/trace elements: micro and macro (that we need lots of) human diets before agriculture and nutritional adaptations: mostly meat
undernutrition: not getting enough calories malnutrition: not getting enough nutrients factors influencing growth and development (genetics, hormones, environmental factors) human life cycle (conception and pregnancy, gestation, birth, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, postreproductive period, death): more complex than any other animal