TO INTRODUCTION SPEECH COMMUNICATION FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE Chapter 9 Schutz's human needs, pp. 212-213 Inclusion The state of being involved with others; a human need. Affection The emotion of caring for others and/or being care for means that we humans need to love and be loved. Control The ability to influence our environment Small group communication defined, pp. 215-216 (see bullet-points on p. 215) Small group communication The interaction among three to nine people who are working together to achieve an interdependent goal. o Groups must be small enough that members are mutually aware that the group of people is a collective entity. Groups typically contain between three and nine people but may be larger if members perceive the group as an entity. o The substance that creates and holds the group together is the interaction between members. o Group members are interdependent they cannot achieve their goals without the help of other group members. Types and functions of small groups, pp. 216 Task-oriented groups(Secondary Groups) Formed for the purpose of completing tasks such as solving a problem or making a decision. (Ex. A group of students studying for an exam are taking part in a taskoriented group.) Relationship-oriented groups(Primary Groups) Usually long-term and exist to meet our needs for inclusion and affection. (Ex. Your family is an example of a relationship-oriented group) Assigned group Evolve out of a hierarchy where individuals are appointed as members of the group. (Ex. Being asked to serve on a student union advisory board is an example of an assigned group.) Emergent groups The results of environmental conditions leading to the formation of a cohesive group of individuals. (Ex. A group of friends who meet at college is an example of an emergent group.) Types of leaders, p. 217 Designated leader Someone who has been appointed or elected to a leadership position. (Ex. Chair, team leader, coordinator, or facilitator.) Emergent leader Someone who becomes an informal leader by exerting influence toward achievement of a group's goal but who does not hold the formal position or role of leader. Types of power (Wilmot & Hocker and French & Raven), pp. 217-218 Distributive power Where the leader exerts influence over others. Integrative power Which highlights interdependence with another person or persons to achieve mutually agreed upon goals. Designated power Where power is given to the importance of a relationship between people. Marriages, families, and groups often hold such power for us. o Wilmot & Hocker/French & Raven Reward power The ability to give followers what they want and need. Punishment power The ability to withhold from followers what they want and need. Coercion A form of punishment power that attempts to force compliance with hostile tactics. Referent power Power based on others' admiration and respect. Charisma is an extreme form of referent power that inspires strong loyalty and devotion from others. Expert power When the other members value a person's knowledge or expertise. Theoretical approaches to leadership (style, contingency, communication competencies, distributed), pp. 219-221 Style o Democratic leaders Leaders who encourage members to participate in group decisions. o Laissez-faire leaders Leaders who take almost no initiative for structuring a group discussion. o Autocratic leaders Leaders who maintain strict control over their group. Contengency
Contengency approaches to studying leadership assume that group situations vary, with different situations requiring different leadership styles. (Ex. Newly formed groups may need a more directive leader someone who will launch the group. As the group begins to mature, a more democratic leadership style may be more appropriate.) Depends on the contingencies of the situation. Communication competencies o Communication scholars who adopt the communicative competencies approach have tried to focus on the communicative behaviors of leaders as they exercise interpersonal influence to accomplish group goals. Most important leader competencies: Effective leaders are able to clearly and appropriately communicate ideas to the group without dominating conversation. Effective leaders communicate a clear grasp of the task facing the group. Effective leaders are skilled at facilitating discussion. Effective group leaders encourage open dialogue and do not force their own ideas on a group. Effective leaders place group needs over personal concerns. Effective leaders display respect for others during interaction. Effective leaders share in the successes and failures of the group. Distributed leadership approach o Acknowledges that each member is expected to perform the communication behaviors needed to move the group toward its goal. o Groups seem to be more productive when leadership behaviors are distributed. How norms develop in groups, pp. 221-223 Most norms are not established directly. The norms of any group tend to mirror the norms of the general culture or co-culture in which the group exists. Norms often rapidly, without members consciously realizing what is occurring. Members should pay attention to group norms to ensure that they are appropriate to the group task. Types of group roles, p. 223 Formal role Also called positional role; an assigned role based on an individuals position or title within a group. Informal role Also called a behavioral role; a role that is developed spontaneously within a group. Categories of behavioral functions, pp. 223 (see Figure 9.1) Task functions Behaviors that are directly relevant to the group's task and that affect the group's productivity. Maintenance functions Behaviors that focus on the interpersonal relationships among members. Self-centered functions Behaviors that serve the needs of the individual at the expense of the group. Three factors that contribute to a cohesive group climate, pp. 224, 226 Trust A group climate characteristic where members believe they can rely on each other. Supportiveness An atmosphere of openness created when members care about each other and treat each other with respect. Cohesiveness The attachment members feel toward each other and the group. Defensive and supportive behaviors and statements, p. 227 Observable signs of groupthink, pp. 226-227 An illusion of invulnerability by the group. An unquestioned belief in the morality of the group. Collectice efforts by group members to rationalize faulty decisions. Stereotypical views of enemy leaders as evil, weak, or ineffective. Self-censored of alternative viewpoints. A shared illusion that all group members think the same thing. Direct pressure on group members expressing divergent opinions. The emergence of "mind guards" to screen the group from information contradictory to prevailing opinion
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Effect of diversity on group culture, pp. 227-228 Within-group diversity The presence of observable an/or implicit differences among group members. Cognitive paradigms Ways of looking at the world. Types of tasks suitable for group problem-solving, p. 229 Conjunctive tasks A task for which no one member has all the necessary information, but each members has some information to contribute. Disjunctive tasks Task which require little coordination and which can be completed by the most skilled member working alone. Three basic types of discussion questions, pp. 229-230 Questions of fact deal with whether something is true or can be verified. o How has the divorce rate changed in the past 15 years? Questions of value ask whether something is good or bad, better or worse. Cultural and individual values and beliefs are central to the questions of value. o Why should people seek higher education? Questions of policy ask what action should be taken. o What courses should students be required to take? Discussing criteria, p. 231 Criteria are the standards by which a group must judge potential solutions o Absolute criteria Must be met o Important criteria Should be met Identifying alternatives, p. 232 Brainstorming A creative procedure for generating ideas and potential solutions to problems. Evaluating alternatives, p. 232 After group members have adequately brainstormed alternatives, the finals task is to evaluate alternatives. Other functions for small-group communication, pp 232-233 Make decisions Effect change Negotiate conflict Foster creativity Maintain between stakeholders. Guidelines for communicating during small group discussions, pp. 234-235 Related your statements to preceding remarks. Use conventional word arrangements. Speak concisely. State one point at a time. Chapter 10 What is workplace communication? (see definitions of organization, organizational communication, structuration), pp. 243244 Organizations Social collective, or groups of people, in which activities are coordinated to achieve both individual and collective goals. Organizational communication The ways in which groups of people both maintain structure and order through their symbolic, interactions and allow individual actors the freedom to accomplish their goals. Structuration The process of forming and maintaining structures through verbal and nonverbal communication, which established norms and rules governming members' behaviors. Types of organizations (according to their primary function), pp. 244-245 Economic orientation Organizations that manufacture products and/or other services for consumers. Political orientation Organizations that generate and distribute power and control within society. Integration orientation Organizations that help to mediate and resolve discord among members of society.
Pattern-maintenance orientation Organizations that promote cultural and educational regularity and development within society. Types of organizational structures (bureaucratic, participatory; important terms: bureaucracy, division of labor, chain of command, downward communication), pp. 245-248 Bureaucracy structures Organizational structural characterized by a division of labor, rigid hierarchy of authority, and downward communication that enforces formalized rules and procedures for behavior o Division of labor How a given amount of work is divided among the available human resources. o Chain of command Clear lines of authority o Downward communication Communicated in which superiors initiate messages to subordinates. Participatory organizations Organizations that value individuals' goals, needs, and feelings while simultaneously pursuing efficiency and productivity. Types of participatory organizational structures, pp. 246-248 Quality circles are small groups of employees who meet regularly on compant time to recommend improvements to products and work procedures. Autonomous work groups are given freedom to manage their own work. Such groups are free to hire and fire their own members and select their own leaders. Communication networks, p. 249 Patterns of relationships through which information flows in an organization. Types of communication in communication networks (formal, informal, upward, horizontal), pp. 249-250 Formal communication Messages that follow prescribed channels of communication throughout the organizations. Informal communication Any interaction that does not generally follow the formal structure of the organization but emerges out of natural social interaction among organization members. Upward communication Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors. Horizontal communication Messages between members of an organization with equal power. Organizational assimilation, pp. 250-251 Organizational assimilation Processes through which individuals become integrated into the culture of an organization. Organizational culture, p. 251 Organization culture A pattern of beliefs, values, and practices shared by the members of an organization. Behavioral characteristics of competent communication: Immediacy, supportiveness (see strategies on p. 253), strategic ambiguity, interaction management, pp. 251-254 Immediacy Communication behaviors intended to create perceptions of psychological closeness with others. Supportive communication People engage in supportive communication when they listen with empathy, acknowledge the feelings of others, and engage in dialogue to help others maintain a sense of personal control. Strategic ambiguity Purposeful use of symbols to allow multiple interpretations of messages. Five approaches to managing conflict, p. 254 Avoidance is where one denies the existence of conflict Competition is where you view conflict as a "battle" and advance your own interests over those of others to win. Compromise is where you are willing to negotiate away some of your position as long as the other party in the conflict is willing to do the same. Accommodation is where you set aside your views and accept those of others. Collaboration involves thoughtful negotiation and reasoned compromise where both parties agree that the negotiated outcome is the best possible alternative under the circumstance. Customer service skills: Compliance-gaining strategies (Table 10.1) pp. 256 Customer service encounter The moment of interaction between the customer and the firm. o Promise Promising a reward for compliance. o Threat Threatening to punish for noncompliance.
Pre-giving Rewarding the customer before requesting compliance. Moral appeal Implying that it is immoral not to comply Liking Being friendly and helpful to get the customer in a good frame of mind to ensure compliance. Three levels of workplace aggression (Neuman), p. 257 1. The withholding of cooperation, spreading rumors or gossip, consistent arguing, belligerency, and the use of offensive language. 2. Intense arguments with supervisors, co-workers, and customers, sabotage, verbal threats and feelings of persecution. 3. Frequent displays of intense anger resulting in recurrent suicidal threats, physical fights, destruction of property, use of weapons, and the commission of murder, rape and/or arson. Sexual harassment (defined), p. 258 Unwelcome, unsolicited, repeated behavior of a sexual nature. Types of sexual harassment (quid pro quo; hostile work environment), p. 258 Quid pro quo A situation in which an employee is offered a reward or is threatened with punishment based on his or her participation in a sexual activity. Hostile Work environment Conditions in the workplace that are sexually offensive, intimidating, or hostile and that affect an individual's ability to perform his or her job. o o o Chapter 12 What is source credibility? p. 293 Source Credibility the audience's perception of a speaker's effectiveness. Four aspects of credibility (competence, trustworthiness, dynamism, common ground), pp. 294-296 Competence The degree to which the speaker is perceived as skilled, reliable, experienced, qualified, authoritative, and informed; an aspect of credibility. Trustworthiness The degree to which the speaker is perceived as honest, fair, sincere, honorable, friendly, and kind; an aspect of credibility. Dynamism The extent to which the speaker is perceived as bold, active, energetic, strong, empathic, and assertive. Common Ground Also known as co-orientation, the degree to which the speaker's values, beliefs, attitudes, and interests are shared with the audience. Research findings on the study of source credibility (bullet-pointed items on pp. 296-297) High-credibility speakers can seek and change audience opinions more than low-credibility speakers Sometimes a sleeper effect occurs when source and message get separated in the listener's mind over time. Who introduces you as a speaker and how you are introduced can raise or lower your source credibility. Educational background can raise credibility. Judgments about a presenter's source credibility can occur remarkably fast in the first 10-15 seconds. Presenters perceived as high in status consistently earn higher credibility scores than presenters perceives as lower in status. Disorganized speeches result in lower credibility. Effective delivery skills voice, gesture, and movement tend to raise source credibility. Nonfluencies such as unexpected or vocalized pauses can decrease a presenter's perceived credibility.
Chapter 14 Research and the speech preparation process (Table 14.1), p. 327 1. Selecting a topic 2. Organizing ideas 3. Researching support materials 4. Preparing introduction and conclusion 5. Practicing and delivering speech Information sources (personal experience, written and visual resources, the internet, people sources, pp. 327-334 Personal experience Use of your own life as a source of information. Written and Visual resources Reference librarian A librarian specifically trained to help find sources of information. Computer catalog An electronic database containing about information materials in a library. The Internet Use a search engine Virtual library provides links to Web sites that have been reviewed for relevance and usability. People sources Finding people to interview Suggestions for conducting interviews, p. 334 Conducting the interview o On first contact with your interviewee or the interviewer's secretary, be honest about your purpose. o Prepare specific questions for the interview. o Be respectful toward the person you interview. o Tell the interviewee you are going to take notes so you can use the information in your speech. o When you quote the interviewee or paraphrase the person's ideas in your speech, use oral footnotes to indicate where you got the information. Citing sources of information correctly, p. 335 Bibliographic references Complete citations that appear in the "references" or "works cited" section of your speech outline. Internal references Brief notations of which bibliographic reference contains the details you are using in your speech. Verbal citations Oral explanations of who the source is, how recent the information is, and the source's qualifications. The importance of source variety, pp. 335-336 Each type of source will yield different types of information. Criteria for evaluating sources, pp. 336-337 Is the supporting material clear? Is the supporting material verifiable? Is the source of the supporting material competent? Is the source objective? Is the supporting material relevant? Appropriate supporting materials (examples, surveys, testimony [types of testimony], numbers and statistics, analogies, explanations, definitions), pp. 337-341 Supporting materials Information you can use to substantiate your arguments and to clarify your position. Examples Specific instances used to illustrate your point. o Hypothetical cannot be verified. o Factual can be verified. Surveys Studies in which a limited number of questions are answered by a sample of the population to discover opinions on issues. Testimonial evidence Written or oral statements of others' experience used by a speaker to substantiate or clarify a point.
Lay testimony statements made by an ordinary person that substantiate or support what you say. o Expert testimony statements made by someone who has special knowledge or expertise about an issue or idea. o Celebrity testimony statements made by a public figure who is known to the audience. Statistics Numbers that summarize numerical information or compare quantities. Analogies A comparison of things in some respects, especially in position or function that are otherwise dissimilar. Explanations A clarification of what something is or how it works. Definitions Determinations of meaning through descriptive, simplification, examples, analysis, comparisons, explanations, or illustration. Ethical use of supporting material (see summary of NCA Credo on p. 342, which includes definitions of plagiarism, incremental plagiarism, and two-sided arguments), pp. 341-342 Plagiarism The intentional use of information from another source without crediting the source. Incremental plagiarism The intentional or unintentional use of information from one or more sources without fully divulging how much information is directly quoted. Two-sided argument A source advocating one position presents an argument from the opposite viewpoint and then goes on to refute that argument. o Chapter 15 Five functions of an introduction (Figure 15.1), pp. 348-354 Gain attention Arouse interest State the purpose Establish qualifications Forecast development and organization Gaining and maintaining audience attention (12 suggestions), pp. 349-352 1. Bring to the presentation the object or person about which you are going to speak. 2. Invite your audience to participate. 3. Let your clothing relate to your presentation. 4. Exercise your audience's imagination. 5. Start with sight or sound. 6. Arouse audience curiosity. 7. Role-play. 8. Show a few slides or a very short film or video. 9. Present a brief quotation, or have the audience read something you provided. 10. State striking facts or statistics. 11. Self-disclosure 12. Tell a story, a narration. Words of caution about gaining and maintaining attention, p. 352 No matter what method you use for gaining audience attention, avoid being overly dramatic. Always make sure your attention-getting strategy is related to topic. The main functions of the body of a presentation, p. 354 1. Increase what an audience knows about a topic (Informative presentation) 2. Change an audience's attitudes or actions about a topic (Persuasive presentation) 3. Present a limited number of arguments and/or ideas. 4. Provide support for your arguments and/or ideas. 5. Indicate the sources of your information, arguments, and supporting materials. Five principles of outlining, pp 355-357 Outline A written plan that uses symbols, margins, and content to reveal the order, importance, and substance of a presentation. Immediate purpose What you expect to achieve on the day of your presentation.
Long-range goal What you expect to achieve over a time period longer than the day of your presentation. Main points The most important points in a presentation; indicated by Roman Numerals in an outline. Subpoints The points in a presentation that support the main points; indicated by capital letters in an outline. The rough draft, pp. 357-359 Rough draft The preliminary organization of the outline of a presentation. The sentence outline, pp. 359-360 An outline consisting entirely of complete sentences. The key-word outline, pp. 360-361 An outline consisting of important words or phrases to remind the speaker of the content of the presentation. Organizational patterns (time-sequence, spatial/relations, cause/effect, problem/solution, topical-sequence), pp. 361-366 Time Sequence pattern A method of organization in which the presenter explains a sequence of events in chronological order. Spatial/Relations A method of organization in which the presenter reveals how things relate to each other in space, position, and visual orientation. Cause/Effect A method of organization in which the presenter first explains the causes of an event, a problem, or an issue and then discusses its consequences, results, or effects. Problem/Solution A method of organization in which the presenter describes a problem and proposes a solution to that problem. Topical-sequence A method of organization that emphasizes the major reasons an audience should accept a point of view by addressing the advantages, disadvantages, qualities, and types of person, place, or thing. Transitions and signposts, pp. 366-368 Transitions A bridge between sections of a presentation that helps the presenter move smoothly from one idea to the other. Signposts Ways in which a presenter signals to an audience where the presentation is going. The four functions of the conclusion, pp. 368-369 1. Forewarn the audience that you are about to end this message. 2. Remind the audience of your central idea and the main points of your presentation. 3. Specify what the audience should think or do in response to your speech. 4. End the speech in a manner that makes audience members want to think and do as you recommend. Chapter 16 The four modes of delivery, pp. 376-378 Extemporaneous Mode A carefully prepared and researched speech delivered in a conversational style. Impromptu Mode Delivery of a speech without notes, plans, or preparation; characterized by spontaneity and informal language. Manuscript Mode Delivery of a speech from a script of the entire speech. Memorized Mode Delivering a speech that has been committed to memory. The six vocal aspects of delivery, pp. 379-383 1. Pitch The highness and lowness of a speaker's voice; technically, the frequency of sound made by vocal cords. 2. Rate The speed at which speech is delivered, normally between 125 and 190 words per minute. 3. Pause The absence of vocal sound used for dramatic effect, transition, or emphasis of ideas. 4. Vocalized pauses Breaks in fluency; filling silences with meaningless words or sounds that negatively affect an audience's perception of the speaker's competence and dynamism. 5. Enunciation The pronunciation and articulation of sounds and words. 6. Pronunciation The conformity of the speaker's production of words with agreed-upon rules about the sounds of vowels and consonants, and for syllabic emphasis. Guidelines for improving vocal aspects of delivery, pp. 383-384 Choose one aspect of vocal delivery, and work on it until you are confident enough to move to another. Try practicing the skill in your everyday life.
Be doggedly determined about improvement. The four bodily aspects of speech delivery, pp. 384-388 Gestures Movements of the head, arms, and hands to illustrate, emphasize, or signal ideas in the speech. Facial expression Any nonverbal cue by the speaker's face. Eye contact The extent to which a speaker looks directly at the audience. Bodily movement What the speaker does with his or her entire body during the presentation. Suggested techniques for reducing your fear of presenting, pp. 389-390 Skills approach Reduces fear by systematically improving your presenting skills. Cognitive modification approach Bolsters the beginning speaker's confidence through positive thinking. Visualization approach The process of picturing yourself succeeding. Relaxationg approach Combining deep relaxation with fear-inducing thoughts. Self-managed approach Reduce your fear of presenting with self-diagnosis and a variety of therapies. The function and uses of visual aids, p. 391-392 Visual Aids Any items that can be seen by an audience for the purpose of reinforcing a message. Visual aids are not appropriate for all speeches at all times. Visual aids should be visible to the audience only when needed and should be out of sight during the rest of the presentation. Types of visual aids, pp. 393-398 Chalkboard Posters Opaque or Overhead Projectors Films and Slides Videotapes Photographs Drawings Models, Physical Objects, and Animals Handouts Yourself or an assistant Electronic presentations Chapter 17 The goal of informative presentation, p. 406-407 To increase an audience's knowledge or understanding of a topic. To make the topic of an informative presentation interesting and significant to the audience. The behavioral purposes of and desired responses to informative speeches, pp. 408-409 Describe objects, persons, or issues. Distinguish between different things. Compare items. Define words, objects, or concepts. State what they have learned. Show that they have learned. Five factors involved in effectively presenting information to an audience, pp. 410-414 Information hunger The audience's need for the information contained in the speech Rhetorical questions Questions asked for effect, with no answer expected. Information relevance The importance, novelty, and usefulness of the topic and the information. Extrinsic motivation A method of making information relevant by providing the audience with reasons outside the speech itself for listening to the content of the speech. Informative content The main points and sub points, illustrations, and examples used to clarify and inform. Principles of learning and research to guide the selection of speech content, pp. 412-413 1. Audiences tend to remember and comprehend generalizations and main ideas better than details and specific facts
2. Relatively simple words and concrete ideas are significantly easier to retain than more complex materials. 3. Humor can make a dull speech more interesting to an audience, but humor does not seem to increase information retention. 4. Early remarks about how the speech will meet the audience's needs can create anticipation and increase the chances that the audience will listen and understand. 5. Calling for overt audience response, or actual behavior, increases comprehension more than repetition does. How to avoid information overload (quantity and complexity maxims), pp. 413-414 Information overload A situation that occurs when the quantity or difficulty of the information presented is greater than the audience can assimilate within the given time. o AVOID IO Quantity The speaker tells more than audience members ever wanted to know about a subject, even when they are interested. Tries to cram as much information as possible in the time allowed Complexity The speaker uses language or ideas that are beyond the capacity of the audience to understand. Five skills for informative speaking (defining, describing, explaining, narrating, demonstrating), pp. 414-418 Defining We can define by using comparison and contrast, synonyms and antonyms, and even by operational definition. Describing One of the best ways to make an informative speech interesting is by using language forcefully and effectively. o Abstract words Words or phrases that refer generally to ideas, qualities, acts, or relationships. o Concrete words Words that refer to definite persons, places, objects, and acts. Explanation A means of idea development that simplifies or clarifies an idea while arousing audience interest. Narrating The oral presentation and interpretation of a story, a description, or an event; includes dramatic reading of prose or poetry. Demonstrating Showing the audience what you are explaining.
Chapter 18 Four action goals of persuasive presentations (continuance, deterrence, adoption, discontinuance), pp. 426-428 Continuance Persuading an audience to continue present behavior or belief. Deterrence Persuading an audience to avoid an activity or a belief. Adoption Inducing an audience to accept a new idea, attitude, behavior, belief, or product and to demonstrate that acceptance through behavioral change. Discontinuance Inducing an audience to stop doing something or thinking in a certain way. Strategies for persuading audiences (motivational appeals, emotional appeals, logical appeals), pp. 428-431 Motivational appeals o The first motivating force is what our bodies tell us to do o The second motivating force is what our minds tell us to do. o The third motivation force is what other people want us to do. Emotional appeals Attempts to persuade audience members to change an attitude or a behavior through an appeal usually in a narrative form to their emotions. Logical appeals Propositions and evidence used to persuade an audience. o Evidence Any material that supports a proposition. Organizational considerations: What organizational pattern? Best arguments first, last or in the middle? Present one, both, or many sides of the issue? Refute counterarguments? Familiar or novel arguments? Pp. 432-433 Arguments presented first or early in the body of the message seem to have more impact in presentations on controversial issues, on topics with which the audience is uninvolved, on topics the audience perceives as interesting, and on topics highly familiar to the audience.
Arguments seem to have more impact on a audience later in a persuasive presentation when audience members are involved in the issue, when the topic is likely to be less interesting, and when the issue is moderately unfamiliar to the audience. The Monroe motivated sequence, pp. 433-434 Monroa motivated sequence A problem-solving format that encourages an audience to become concerned about an issue; especially appropriate for a persuasive speech. This sequence has 5 steps: 1. Attention 2. Need 3. Satisfaction 4. Visualization 5. Action Generally accepted ethical standards governing the preparation and delivery of a persuasive presenter, pp. 435-437 Accurately cite sources Respect sources of information Respect your audience Respect your opponent Persuasive-speaking skills (tests of evidence, believability), pp. 437-438 Tests of evidence Questions that can be used to test the validity of evidence. o Is the evidence consistent with other known facts? o Would another observer draw the same conclusions? o Does the evidence come from unbiased sources? o Is the source of the information qualified by education an/or experience to make a statement about the issue? Believability A criterion of good evidence the audience must trust and accept the evidence. How to resist persuasion, pp. 440-441 1. The best resistance is avoidance. 2. Be skeptical about all messages 3. Check claims with other, unbiased sources 4. Check out the credibility of the source. 5. Be cautious about accepting a persuasive appeal 6. Question the ethical basis of proposed actions. 7. Use your knowledge and experience to analyze persuasive claims. 8. Use your own values as a check against fraudulent claims. 9. Check what persuaders say against what they do. 10. Use your freedom of expression and freedom of choice as protection against unethical persuaders.