1 Midterm Outline 1: Biopsychology studying the biological basis of behavior o How the nervous system works o Behavior in psychology began with the greeks Hipocretes early greek physican o Had the idea that the brain was a physical entity that contolled behavior Called monism ( brain is like the body and not the a magical entity) No way to prove it o Went against the idea that spirit controls behavior Aristotle o Belivevd the mind was different from the brain o Believed the brain controls the body and the mind/soul does not live in the brain o Dualism seperation between the mind and the brain o Emotions = mind o Physical changes = brain Descartes 17th century French philosopher o Accepted/expanded dualism o One of the first to try and understand human behavior scientifically o Proposed the mechanical model (hydrolic) Our body was hydrolic fluids and we when the fluids shifted, we moved o Tried to explain how the brain and mind interact and that we move our bodies because we use our minds o The mind monitored the brain and made decisions o Pineal gland was manipulated/shifted to produce body movements (like a joystick) Luigi Galvani italian physiologist o Discovered that muscle contractions were from electrical contractions o Tested hydrolics model and isolated specific body parts o Decided to play with electrical impulse to see if he could get a contraction from it Johannes Muller german physiolgist o Accepted that electric caused movement, but it was not understood where the electrical current came from o Performed experimental ablation surgically remove parts of the brain/body and see what happens to the body o Determined that the same level of charge = same level of contraction o Defined Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies nerves carry the same basic message The reason we produce differernt behaviors is because the brain is functionally divided, not because the electrical impulse is different
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One part of the brain stimulates a specific behavior Pierre Flourens o continued using ablation technique o systematically tried to map out the brain o determined/documented which parts of the brain contolled specific behavior o used mice brains by damaging parts of it and once it was recovered, recorded how the behavior was effected o behaviors overlapped with different parts of the brain Paul Broca first to study human behavior and brain functioning o was a doctor o studied brains after patients died beacsue he was referred a patient who had a stroke and could not talk ("Tan-Tan"), but could do everything else After Tan-Tan's death, he found a lecision the size of a golfball on the back frontal/front temporal lobe (Broca's Area) Studied 9 people with the same damage as Tan-Tan after he died Case study - case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results Experiment - is a set of observations performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question, to retain or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena Cerebral Angiography - Using modern equipment, this method offers better visual representation of cerebral blood vessels. o a form of medical imaging that visualizes the arterial and venous supply of the brain WAIS ( Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) o Four parts a verbal IQ (VIQ) a performance IQ (PIQ) a composite, single full-scale IQ score based on the combined scores.
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Wisconsin Card Sorting Test - the test is widely used by psychiatrists, neurologists and neuropsychologists in patients with acquired brain injury, neurodegenerative disease, or mental illness such as schizophrenia. o Initially, a number of stimulus cards are presented to the participant. He or she is then given a stack of additional cards and asked to match each one to one of the stimulus cards, thereby forming separate piles of cards for each. The participant is not told how to match the cards; however, he or she is told whether a particular match is right or wrong.
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Electromyography (EMG) - is a technique for evaluating and recording physiologic properties of muscles at rest and while contracting. EMG is
performed using an instrument called an electromyograph, to produce a record called an electromyogram. An electromyograph detects the electrical potential generated by muscle cells when these cells contract, and also when the cells are at rest. o To perform intramuscular EMG, a needle electrode is inserted through the skin into the muscle tissue o Normal muscles at rest make certain, normal electrical sounds when the needle is inserted into them. Then the electrical activity when the muscle is at rest is studied. Abnormal spontaneous activity might indicate some nerve and/or muscle damage o Then the patient is asked to contract the muscle smoothly. The shape, size and frequency of the resulting motor unit potentials is judged Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is an imaging technique used to measure the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain Electrooculography (EOG) is a technique for measuring the resting potential of the retina o the EOG does not represent the response to individual visual stimuli. o If the eye is moved from the center position towards one electrode, this electrode "sees" the positive side of the retina and the opposite electrode "sees" the negative side of the retina. Consequently, a potential difference occurs between the electrodes. Assuming that the resting potential is constant, the recorded potential is a measure for the eye position. Electrocardiogram - which records the electrical activity of the heart over time o The heart muscles create electrical waves when they pump. These waves pass through the body and can be measured at electrodes (electrical contacts) attached to the skin. Electrodes on different sides of the heart measure the activity of different muscles. An ECG displays the voltage between pairs of these electrodes, and the muscle activity that they measure from different directions - Experimental ablation - is one of the most common research methods. It consists of removal or destruction of part of the brain of an experimental animal for the purpose of studying the functions of that region of the brain. Computerized Temoography (CT Scan) o One of the earliest
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Xray of head and brain Patient is placed in a tube with a ring and xrays are shot through the brain Computer makes models based on x-rays Can not detect changes and function Shows the structure of the brain Detects tumors, blood clots, damaged areas due to loss of blood o Based on the contrast of the scan (shadows) Magnetic Resonance Imager (MRI) o Does not use radiation (Xray) o Radio frequence waves are passed through the brain and a ring creates magnetic field o The waves cause different molecules to spin and give off different energies in the bain o The scanner is set to record specific energies - example [hydrogen molecules] o Compare normal range and deviation of normal to find the da,age the brain Functional MRI o Upgraded MRI to study progression/real time functional changes of the brain Stereotaxic apparatus o Place a small animal's head in a vice that pulls, the upper part of the apparatus has a drill that goes into the skull and a microelectrode is placed into a particular part of the brain o Dial specfic o Can damage small parts of the brain Brain lesion any damaged area of brain (naturally or experimentally) o Asspiration lecision suck out tiny bits of brain tissue Nonspecific any tisse around the tip of the needle is also sucked out o Heat lecision higher electrical impulse = higher the probe = more damage done Nonspecific o Radio Frequency lecision radio waves are used as a source of heat to warm the probe o Neurotoxins administered through a small tube (canula), neurons near the toxins absorb it and kill it Nonspecific Kainic Acid used to kill cells Specific Neurotoxins release in an area and only one specific neuron will absorb it o 6-OHDA 6 hydroxy dopamine specific to dopamine and norepinephrine neurons and will only kill those o Criogenic Blockade releases temporary/reversible lecision, produces temporary loss of function by
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cooling a specific part of the brain so that they don't die Neural stimulation shows enhancements in the behavior, supports further what this area of the brain is doing o Example) probes placesd on the frontal brain and specific behavior is monitored Neural Activity used to study o Electroencephalograph (EEG) used to meaure general brain activity Get ideas of regions, not specific areas Used to detect brain tumors because tumors are heightened Used to diagnos Epilpsy (particular part of the brain becomes hyperactive) o Microelectrodes small electrodes that measure the activity of a single neuron activity (not used in humans) o Positron Emission Tomography (PET) monitors the metabolic activity of different brain areas Looks for metabolic activity Measures how well neurons are taking in nutrients Uses radioactive substance (ZDG) which is an alternative to glucose and is recognized by the cells More active brain cells aborb more ZDG FMRI does the same thing without ZDG Neurotransmitter Analysis measures the level of neurotransmitters or the metabolites of it o Microanalysis small saline is flushed in brain and neurotransmitters mix and aspirate some of the fluid and a sample of this is measured by the amount of neurotransmitters, the more = more activity Neural Tracing what the path is to communicate through the origin to execution of behavior o 2 Directions : 1. Anterograde labeling forward origin to endpoint, begin with chemical targetted for a particular neuron, neurons absorb to one another and chemical diffuses from neuron to neuron, you can see the pathway through the fluorescent 2. Retrograde labeling backward chemical is injected at the endpoint
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-Neuroaxis imaginary line through the brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous system part that is not incased with bone unlike the central nervous sytem o Somatic nervous system contain crainal nerves Voluntary Spinal Nerves Afferent Nerves/Neurons sensory nerves, carry sensory nerves from the body to the central nervous system, where they are close to the spinal cord they are in dorsal position (coming in from the back) Efferent Nerves/Neurons motor nervues, carry motor nerves from the central nervous system out to the body, reside on ventral surface (towards abdomin) o Autonomic Nercous system contain cranial nerves Involuntary Spinal Nerves different from somatic muscles because they are smooth and make up organs Parasympthathetic Nervous system role is to conserve energy o works to replenish energy o nerves exit in the brain stem and scral spinal cord (bottom) o slows hear and stimulates digestion Sympathetic Nervous system origin is in the midrange of the spinal cord o Neurons grouping from spinal cord to ganglion o Some connect to antoher neuron to an organ o Some go straught organ o Functin is to cause the organs to become active and organize organs to move in order to help move and behave o Move = heart rate increases, blood flow increases, pupils dialate, digestive track slows down Cranial Nerves exit out of base of the brain; therfore, considered part of the peripheal motor and sensory functions, picks up sensory and transmits it to the brain Central Nervous System o Meninges only here, main purpose is to protect the CNS, made up of three layers Dura Mater outer layer, against the bone, thick and flexible, not stretchy Arachnoid membrane made up of a layer of tissue that has the arachnoid space which has tissue connect to the tom and bottom laters
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Pia Mater part that is contoning to the brain and spinal cord, thing, adheres to the soft tissue, molds itself to the spinal cord and brain tissue to keep the meninges in place o Meningitis inflation of the three layers o Spinal Tab used for menengitis, needs that goes back through the spinal cord in arachnoid space Spinal Cord o Gray matter cell bodies connect, synapse of neutrons o White matter color from axons Brain Stem o Medulla controls the ANS, regulates the heart rate & respiration by controlling the diaphram, regulates swallowing relfex and if it is damaged, death occurs o Pons "little bridge" part of the brain that regulates sleep/wake, o Reticular formation group of neurons in charge of anything to do with the sleep cycle Brain o Ipsilateral structures that interact on the same side of the neuroaxis (nose close left nostril and smell with right + transmitt to the right side o Controlateral structures that cross the neuroxis Motor Cortex- each hemisphere has one, the right hemisphere controls the left, vice versa. If the left were damaged, the right wouldn't work o Anterior fore brain (rostral) o Posterior back of the head (caudal) o Medial towards the middle of the neuroaxis o Lateral moving away/out from the brain o Dorsal towards the back o Ventral towards the abdominal o 4 Lobes: Temporal Lobe Object recognition Face recognition Auditory processing Word processing Parietal Lobe Space and body awareness Mathematical calculations Aspects of reading and writing Occipital Lobe Primary visual processing Word form area Frontal Cortex Planning
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Executive function Language Production Language Grammar Working Memory Orbital Frontal Cortex Controls impuslivity Personality Understanding of social norms Processing reward information
o Parts of the brain o Cerebellum "little brain" Regulates sensory motor system Recieves info from senstory system (auditory, visual, somata) Coordinates execution of controlled/smooth movements Needs info from other systems to move Output of cerebellum is for us to speak/move Damages cause uncoordinated movements Stroke, bruise Jerky movements, loss of balance, stumbling, poor coordination, exaggerated movements, poor speech, drunken actions o Mid Brain Area: Tectum part of the mid brain referred to as the roof Superior Colliculi group of neurons that are part of the visual system o Involved in all visual reflexes o Enable you to track/respond to moving objects o Triggers rapid eye movement in dreaming Inferior Colliculi group of neurons that are part of the auditory system o like a relay station: receive input from ear then project that info to the primary auditory cortex Tegmentum made up of 5 areas o Rostral part of reticular formation o Bundles of neurons controlling eye movement o Periaqueductal gray area, reduces pain sensations while releasing endorphines during period of high arousal o Substania niagra motor movements Area is heavily invaded by dopamine neurons Has an inhibitory effect on other areas of the motor system 80% of it is destroyed in Parkinson's uncontrollable movements
o Ventral Tegmental area that organizes/coordinate aggressive behaviors, has been found to be active after child birth Hypothalamus small, orginizational/control of ANS o Helps to innitiate flight/fight response in threatening situations o When a threat passes, only half of the response slows down and the rest of the hypothalamus is still reacting because hormones are released, but eventually slow down and stop o Regulates the digestive system with different hormones, involeved in regulation of reproduction o 4 F's: FIGHTING, FLEEING, FEEDING, FUCKING Thalamus "relay station" nonspecific o Regulation function o Plays role in communications of nervous system o Different parts of the brain communicate here o Damage of it can shut down the entire CNS Cerebral Cortex o Difficult to study because animals don't have one o Joseph Franz known for phrenology, wanted to correlate areas with specific behaviors by studying brains ager death, he noticed that specific physical traits had specific behaviors, he traveleved to hospitals and studied bumps in the head/skull and found out that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, vice versa Phrenologists are still present o Cerbral cortex they tap different areas and tell which part of the brain had control of what Supporting Neurons o Central Nervous System Glial Cell support cell in the CNS Astrocytes functions with the nervous system Support for neurons (skeleton holding neurons in place) Prevents accidental communication Provides/transports nutrients to neurons from blood veseel o Converts glucose to lactate and that's what gives the energy to the neuron Removes waste from neurons and puts it in the blood stream Obligodendroglia Proveds myelin for axon of neuron Myelin insulates the cell for faster transmission through the neuron
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o Periphereal Nervous System o Schwann Cells provide myelin in PNS, its own independs cell of myelin, insulation/communication (same as Obligodendroglia) Unipolar body is off to the side Bipolar body is in the ceneter (pole on each side of the body) Multi-polar many sites where communication can occur (most common) Multi-polar interneuron found in the spinal cord, helps sensory and interneuron connect o Receiving area = dendrites have receptors for neurotransmitters the receptors are stimulated and produce changed in the cell membrane which cause an electrical impulse creating a membrane potential that eventually reaches threshold o Mylein is on the axon causing faster transmission Inbetween the mylein are nodes of ranvier which are in both the PNS and the CNS o Terminal buttons release neurotransmitters to stimulate the dendrite of the next body and the process occurs again o Principal of connectional specificity explains there is no physical connection between neurons Electrical impluse is b/w the cells Cells respond to particular neurotransmitters which have specific communication between neurons o Principal of dynamic polarization how the electrical impulse occurs within the cell, electrical impulse is one way of transmission Electrical impulse in the cell body goes one way down the terminal and ti doesn't increase or decreae in strength Changes in the Dendrite: o Membrane potential the measure of charge in the membrane o Resting potential the cell is not actively firing, but it works hard to maintain the state within a range of (-40 to -90 mV). Inside the cell is more negative and the outside is more positive o Sodium Potassium Pump hundereds locates on the cell membrane Works constantly to maintain the distribution Specific channels to allow ions in: 2K+ in and 3Na- out in order to work against natural processes: Diffusion molecues, ions move from high to low concentration and try to balance across the membrane
which does not maintain the resting potential so the pump must establish the ratio Electrostatic Pressure molecules of opposite polarity attract and likes repel causing a balanace to reestablish o Action Potential - cell becomes activated and fires o Neurotransmitters bind to the dendrites of the cell body o Excitatory causes the cell membrane to be more (+) charged which causes an action potential o Inhibitory makes the cell membrane more (-) and reduces the chances of an action potential o Threshold of Excitation soldium channels open from a signal causing Na+ to release which makes a more (+) membrane which causes a threshold level of about (-60 to 65mV) which is more positive than the resting potential Once this is reached, a trigger occurs for the Na+ channels to open o All or None Principal either there is an action potential or there isn't Once an action potential fires, the strength never changes (reaches the terminal at the same strength that is was generated) o Changes in polarity in Action Potentials: Depolarization the cell is becoming more positive (left side of the curve), about -70 Repolarization reestablishing more (-) charge, (right side of the curve) Hyperpolarization below -70mV and below resting Self Propogation the action potential self propogates to its terminals after its threshold (-60) has been reached because it causes all the ion channels to all open -the charge agaisnt the nodes of ranvier is like stones skipping on water and it reaches the terminal faster in a myelinated neuron -Synapse communication between cells to signal one another o Presynaptic membrane the terminal of one neuron o Post-synaptic membrane dendrite/cell body of reciveing neuron Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential excitatory inpult that cause the Na+ channel to open and can be generated in many ways: Temporal Summation TIME I f the region of the cell is summed with more than one input then it is posisble for the thresold level to be reached
o the rapid fire releasing of neurotransmitters from one neuron can depolarize another because it is causing the membrane to become more + Spatitial Summation if more than one neuron releases excitatory neurontransmitters within a certain proximity of on another, neighbors cause openings which add together of sodium channels open and a possible level of threshold is reached Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potentials caused by inhibitory neurotransmitter which cause the K+ channels to open leading to K+ leaving which causes hyperpolarizatio (towards -70) and it is less likely to have an action potential Temporal/Spatial summuation same as in EPSPs, but in the opposite direction in terminals, synthesis of neurotransmitters occur and once a neurotransmitters are released in synapse, inactivation of the neurotransmitter occurs after it is released in the terminal o neurotransmitters does its job fadt so that another can come and stimulate for a fast communication between neurons o Autroreceptors receptors that have two unconvential characterisitcs They bind to their neuron's own neurotransmitter molecules They are located on the presynaptic They monitor the number of neurotransmitter molecules in the synapse to reduce the release when the levels are too high and incrase the release when the levels are too low o 2 mechanisms to deactivate: Reuptake a pump that pulls the extra (anything that hasn't bound) neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft, these components are then recycled and formed into other neurotransmitters Break-Down Enzymes the release of enzymes that deactivate neurotransmitters at the same time that neurotransmitters are releasing and then reuptake takes up these components causing a quick uptake and deactivation Synaptic Cleft the space between pre/post synaptic membrane o When an AP reaches terminal, the Na and K ions are exchaning until the terminal Vesticles - n the terminal of postsynaptic, lipid bilayer membraine around the neurontransmitters is present to protect it from being broken down Fuse with membrane and release neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft
With every AP, some vesticles bind and release Satellite cells - found in mature muscle, These cells are involved in the normal growth of muscle, as well as regeneration following injury or disease Nuclei in the CNS, a cluster of cell bodies Ganglia same thing as the nuclei, but in the PNS Tracts bundles of axons in the CNS Nerves same thing as tracts, but in the PNS Dendrites the short processesses emanating fromt eh cell body which receive most of the synaptic contacts from other neurons Cell Body the metabolic center of the neuron, the soa Axon- the long, narrow process that projects from the cell body Neurotransmitters - are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell