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Nasserism Lecture and the Middle East in the Cold War
1
Post WWII Egypt a. Post WWII More of the same i. Egypt tried to renegotiate treaties with Britain but fail ii. Main issue was Suez Canal 1. India is now independent, so Suez is the main issue a. Waning empire, so Britain doesn't want to give it up iii. Government paralysis 1. Popular resentment a. 1948 war against Israel got their butts kicked 2. King Faruq doesn't get along with parties 3. Land distribution a. Rich getting richer; poor getting poorer iv. Muslim Brotherhood 1. Appeal: Very popular a. Advocate true independence and social reform 2. Violence 3. Hasan al-Banna murdered, probably by Egyptian security forces v. Black Sunday 26 January 1952 1. Police barracks at Isma'iliyya leveled by British forces 2. Mass demonstrations against Britain and the Egyptian upper class a. Basically, against anyone connected to the government b. Rise of Nasser i. Free Officers (Nasser is leader) 1. Middle and lower class a. Minor government officials, small peasant landowners, merchant backgrounds 2. Junior officers a. Only senior officer was Naguib b. Younger = more idealistic 3. Gamal Abd al-Nasser (1918-1970) a. Leader of the nine leaders b. Government and senior officers squandered revenue = corruption c. Vague notions; pragmatic ii. Six point guide (not much detail) 1. Elimination of British rule and collaborators 2. Eliminate feudalism 3. End control of state by foreign capital 4. Social justice 5. Creation of national army 6. Creation of democratic government life iii. Coup d'etat 1952 (way to implement the Six point guide) 1. 23 July, 1952 2. RCC (Revolutionary Command Council) a. Responds on a case by case basis b. Executive body c. General goals to consolidate their power i. New constitution ii. Remove rivals iii. Gain popular support 3. RCC and rivals a. King Faruq i. Forced to leave country ii. Abolish monarchy 1953 b. Parliament and political parties i. New constitution ii. Banned political parties and dissolved parliament c. Naguib and Nasser
Lecture 7
Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
2
d. e.
f. c.
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RCC and reforms i. Building support 1. Agrarian Reform Law 1952 a. Limit amount of agricultural land a single person could own i. No more than 200 feddans ii. Surplus land redistributed by allotments of 5 feddans 1. Landowners recomped. b. Helps peasants c. Undermines traditional elite 2. Abolish civil titles like Pasha or Bey a. Stripped away some legitimacy and status 3. Constitution of 1956 a. Committed to Six point guide b. 350 person assembly c. Bill of Rights Reality of Nasserism i. Guided more by popular will at first, but then Nasser begins to guide the popular will ii. Political parties abolished iii. National Union screens candidates for government 1. Nasser holds virtually all the power iv. Voting: Males must vote; women can vote Suez Crisis 1956 i. Tensions with Britain 1. Sudan a. Tied to Egypt since 1820-ish and Britain didn't like it i. Why don't we let the Sudanese decide? 1. They want independence and they get it. b. Anglo-Egyptian Agreement -- 1953 2. Suez Canal a. Britain was out by 1954, but they maintained the right to protect it if anyone invades Egypt or Turkey ii. Baghdad Pact 1. To cut off Soviet influence during the Cold War 2. Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, and Britain allied with the US to form a "wall" against the Soviets a. Interested in getting Egypt to join, but Egypt doesn't necessarily want to be part of the Cold War i. Nasser sees the Pact as imperialism and convinces Syria and Jordan not to join 3. Czech arms deal 1955
i. Naguib was President and Prime Minister ii. Nasser was the power behind the scenes 1. Minister of Interior (Intelligence agency, security forces, etc.) Liberation Rally: Not a traditional political party, but was the only one allowed i. Most people disillusioned by government process Muslim Brotherhood i. Over 500,000 members ii. Wanted to co-opt RCC, but RCC wanted to co-opt them iii. 1954 assassination attempt against Nasser 1. Nasser cracks down on them and bans them 2. Nasser executes 6 leaders and imprisoned thousands of member Naguib becoming Nasser's rival because their views begin to diverge i. Nasser accuses him of being a member of the Muslim Brotherhood ii. 1954 Put under house arrest
Lecture 7
Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
a. b. c.
3
II.
Increase irrigation, help provide power Cost is $1 billion, hopefully from the World Bank i. World Bank doesn't want to give money to Egypt 5. Nationalize the Suez to pay for the Aswan Dam a. Nasser looks like a hero to the Egyptians b. Egypt compensates the French for the rights to the Canal iii. Attack on Suez Canal (everyone sees Nasser as a threat) 1. Britain conducts air bombings a. Soviets threaten London because Egypt is their client 2. France 3. Israel sends troops through Syria a. Justification: Commando raids coming through the Gaza Strip 4. US not part of this a. Eisenhower gets very angry and says no one should benefit b. Britain, France, and Israel decide it's not worth it because the two biggest powers (US and Russia, who happen to be in the middle of the Cold War but still manage to agree on this issue) don't like it iv. Ramifications 1. UN in Gaza and Sinai 2. Imperialism a. Makes Nasser look good because two former imperialist empires had to pull out and didn't benefit 3. Sovereignty a. US and Russia recognize Egyptian sovereignty 4. USSR and Egypt a. USSR resupplies Egyptian army 5. Egypt and Arab world a. Look at Russia as friend of the Arab world 6. Foreign nationals and Jews a. Foreigns aiding and abetting Britain and France b. Israel is an agent of imperialism c. Negative impact basically, they're scapegoats United Arab Republic and Pan-Arabism a. Nasserism goes international i. Make Egypt center of Arab world 1. Arabism and Pan-Arab unity a. Emphasis on pan-Arab unity b. Mixed and conflicting results ii. United Arab Republic 1958-1961 1. Egypt and Syria a. Syria initiates, not Nasser b. Don't have common border Israel, Lebanon, Jordan between them 2. Ba'ath Party a. Communist movement in Syria, so Ba'ath party is worried and turns to Nasser 3. Syrian revolt 1961 a. Egyptians arrogant, look down in Syrians, take their positions i. Syria re-thinks and secedes (not violent) iii. Yemen 1961-1968 1. Civil war 1961
4.
Aswan a. b.
Nasser signs agreement with Czechoslovakia (technically on the Soviet side) Cotton exchanged for military hardware Completely undermines the Baghdad Pact because it is a back door for Soviet influence through Egypt (US view) i. Because Egypt doesn't have much industry, however, there is no communism there.
Lecture 7
Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
a. b. c. d. e.
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c.
Military overthrows king, who had tribal support Nasser helps the military, but other kings support the king Monarchy vs. non-monarchy Ultimately, the military and Nasser lose Didn't really help pan-Arabism because Nasser sent troops to overthrow another Arab ruler iv. Cultural Pan-Arabism (very successful) 1. Voice of the Arabs 2. Movies 3. Umm Kulthum a. Female Egyptian singer who was extremely popular Egypt and Cold War i. Egyptian-Soviet ties 1. 1958 Aswan a. Russia funds it 2. Military 3. Tensions a. Russia = atheist; Egypt = Islamic b. Russia doesn't try to impose communism because Nasser's nationalism doesn't fit communism ii. Eisenhower Doctrine 1. Tries to prevent spread of communism 2. Offers economic and military assistance to any country trying to prevent communism a. Nasser is suspicious of this. iii. Primary obstacles with US 1. Imperialism a. Russia isn't, but the US says they are. 2. Soviet ties 3. US and Israel a. Egypt can't get involved with the US because the US is involved with Israel Arab Socialism i. Result of breakup of UAR ii. Economy and socialism 1. Adopt selective parts of socialism to develop the economy 2. Satisfies Russians because it's socialism, satisfies Arabs because it's Arab 3. Problem: Investors scared to invest because Nasser is nationalizing everything iii. Arab socialism 1961-1964 1. State control 2. Nationalized foreign companies a. People are out of work and leave the country b. Nasser gives jobs out, but people don't know what they're doing 3. Emphasis on industry 4. Also had to staff these 5. Education a. To teach people how to do formerly foreign jobs b. People flock to colleges, but colleges are small-scale i. Student discontent c. Job guarantee, but they're low-paying, low-opportunity jobs i. More discontent 6. Islam a. Government tries to control al-Azhar University so it promotes pro-government agenda and make it more useful i. Previously was mostly religious studies, but government forces new faculty, new studies, etc. b. Tries to control waqf/revenues of colleges c. Abolishes shari'ah courts
Lecture 7
Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
d. Nasser uses Islam as a form of legitimization i. Uses khutbah (beginning of Friday sermon) 1. Religious leaders told to insert his name Used as "guide" to the law
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e. Syria a. 1949 coups i. Shukri al-Quwwatli: First president of Syria ii. Col. Husni Za'im stages coup 1. Changed political picture a. Old urban elites out of power 2. New elites aren't people of upper classes/old system of Ottoman education a. Peasant origins, Syrian military academy education iii. Col. Adib Shishakli second coup (1949) 1. Military dictatorship a. Unifies military b. Eliminates factions 2. Neutralist foreign policy 3. Arabism with Syria at center 4. Overthrown in 1954 because he's too repressive b. 1954-1958 Political instability i. French divide and conquer 1. No Syrian identity a. Identity with locality and/or religion b. No single unifying figure 2. Previous military coups ii. Ba'ath time ("resurrection") 1. Threat of Communist Party 2. Michel Aflaq Leader (Christian Arab) 3. Salah al-Din al-Bitar Aflaq's right hand (Muslim Arab) 4. Combine nationalism and socialism a. Islam as part of Arabism b. Very attractive, particularly with younger generations c. Single Arab state d. Arabism e. Unity, freedom and socialism i. Nasser's ideas stemmed from these ideas 5. Iraq or Egypt? a. Caught between Iraq (pro-Western and conservative) and Egypt (anti-Western and radical) b. 1958 UAR i. Join Nasser ii. Don't really get a say because Egypt pretty much takes over Iraq a. Hashemite Kingdom i. People/family who claim descent from Muhammad ii. King Faysal II and Nuri al-Sa'id 1. Sa'id really runs the show iii. Baghdad Pact 1955 1. Alliance with Britain and the US iv. The artificial kingdom 1. Poorly designed 2. Majority Sunnis were under-represented 3. Shi'a and Pan-Arabism a. Shi'as oppose pan-Arabism because they'd be the minority 4. Kurds and Pan-Arabism a. Oppose because they're not Arab and they want their own state
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Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
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Other divisions a. Tribal, city vs. rural, rich vs. poor, government vs. population i. 1% of population owns 50% of land ii. Government is pro-Western and anti-Nasser, but population is the opposite b. Fall of the Hashemites and Military coups i. July 1958 Coup (General Abd al-Karim Qasim) 1. 1958-1963 a. Stays in power because he attracts a lot of people and is ruthless 2. Bloody coup a. Several members of government and royal family killed 3. Proclaimed reforms and neutrality a. Elections, political parties to form a republic 4. More coups after Qasim's death ii. Formation of a Republic 1. Communists and Ba'ath a. Two main parties 2. Pan-Arabism a. Qasim supports communism as counter to Ba'ath party because he doesn't like pan-Arabism b. When Communists get majority vote, however, Qasim eliminates them 3. Land reform a. Makes common people happy b. Breaks power of old landowning elites c. Problem: No real identity, no organizational capability 4. Cold War a. Abandon Baghdad Pact b. Established ties with Soviet Union for weapons and economic aid because he's not getting enough from Britain and the US c. Iraq and the Kurds i. Not Arab ii. 20-25% of population iii. Qasim and the Kurds 1. Mustafa al-Barzani (Kurdish leader) allowed to return 2. National rights 3. 1961-1963 Kurdish revolt a. Qasim couldn't deliver on his promises b. Mountainous area, so Kurds can defend against the Iraqi army 4. Qasim's overthrow a. The cost for putting down the Kurdish revolt contributed Jordan a. Palestinian problem post-1948 i. Refugees and West Bank 1. Suddenly, 2/3 of the population is Palestinian ii. King Abdallah 1. Citizenship given to Palestinians a. They're better educated, better qualified, etc. than Jordanians and they don't like Abdallah i. See him as accomplice to Britain 2. Appoints some Palestinians to cabinet posts 3. Assassinated in 1951 by a Palestinian b. Rise of King Husayn (1953-1999) i. Grandson of Abdallah ii. 1953 Assumes throne at age 18 iii. Baghdad Pact and Nasserism (Palestinians love Nasser) 1. Reject pact
Lecture and 7
Nasserism the Middle East in the Cold War
2.
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VI.
3. 1958 Crisis i. Communism, Ba'athism, Pan-Arabism (and Nasserism) 1. Biggest issue: pan-Arabism because it threatens the monarchy ii. Hashemite reaction 1. Suspend constitution 2. Martial law 3. Eisenhower Doctrine a. Jordan gets aid to "fight communism" i. British troops, US funds 1. Can prevent any overthrow 2. Funds tourism, expand farming iii. UAR forms iv. Qasim's coup v. Jordan becomes an anomaly 1. Viewed as western puppet, but active in the Arab League and has large Palestinian population Lebanon a. Beirut: Paris of the East until the 70s b. Switzerland of the Middle East c. Flourishing economy Laissez-faire d. Great on the surface i. Multi-ethnic and religious ii. Political identity based on religions 1. Parliamentary representation based on religion iii. Politics dominated by families iv. Za'im: Regional politics centered on these local leaders 1. Essentially, a feudal system e. Lebanese Factions i. Maronites and Phalange (Kataib) 1. Pierre Gemayel Maronite leader who founded the Phalange 2. Phalange has its own militia 3. "Boy Scouts turned street gang" 4. Lebanon Above All a. Lebanon as Maronite homeland ii. Progressive Socialist Party Rival of Phalange 1. Druzes and Kamal Jumblatt (its creator) 2. Supports Pan-Arabism 3. Also has its own militia f. Presidency of Chamille Chamoun (1952-1958) i. Committed to Western alliance 1. But avoids Baghdad Pact is neutral a. This annoys Nasser ii. Nasserism becoming popular iii. Loss of power and 1958 rebellion 1. Tries to stay in power by changing the government a. Waffles, doesn't support Egypt b. Rebellion by Muslims iv. General Fuad Shihab (1958-1964) 1. Chamoun tries to use the military to put down the Muslim rebellion, but Shihab refuses because he sees the rebellion as politics and not really dangerous a. US troops sent instead, but Chamoun steps down and Shihab steps in 2. Shihabism c.
End of subsidy a. Rejection of Baghdad Pact backfires because Britain then ends the subsidy i. Husayn now has to be friendly with other states Economic dependence
Lecture 7
Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
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VIII.
a. Devoted to Lebanese state b. Wants to modernize c. Muslims have more participation in government The June War 1967 (aka Six-Day War) a. 1948 War and 1956 Suez Crisis i. Both weigh heavily in Arab consciousness b. Arab view of Israel (hard to argue against it) i. Western Imperialist stooge ii. Bound to invade Arab lands c. Israeli view of Arab state (paranoid) i. Bought into Pan-Arabism 1. Believe its ultimate goal is the destruction of Israel a. They ignore rivalries that point to pan-Arabism never succeeding d. Palestinian actions i. Palestinian refugees on the Jordanian border, in Syria, and the Gaza Strip carry out commando raids e. Israeli plans for Syria? i. Rumors of major Israeli strike against Syria for supporting the Palestinians 1. Intelligence from Syria and Russia point to this 2. In reaction, Nasser deploys troops into the Sinai f. Nasser and brinkmanship i. Sinai and bluffing 1. Doesn't want war, but wants to convince Israel to stand down 2. Sounds to Israel that Nasser is mobilizing to invade 3. Nasser really hopes the US and the USSR get involved, like in the Suez Crisis ii. Bolster image iii. UN troops removed from Sinai because Nasser asks them to leave iv. Blockade Straits of Tiran to hurt Israel's economy g. Jordan and Egypt i. Nasser tricks Husayn into joining the war 1. May 30 Mutual defense pact h. Israel's first strike June 5, 1967 i. Annihilate Egypt's air force on the ground in the Sinai by attacking from behind i. Cease fire June 9, 1967 and June 11, 1967 i. June 9 Israel ii. June 11 Everyone else j. Israeli military = huge boost in image Aftermath of the June War a. Israel militarily dominant b. Egypt lost Sinai i. Oil revenue ii. Suez Canal closed 1967-1975 1. Israel closed it > no revenue for Egypt a. To run the state, Nasser has to now take subsidies from Kuwait and Saudi Arabia c. Syria lost Golan Heights i. Not important economically, but high ground is strategically important ii. Israel now controls the Sea of Galilee d. Jordan lost West Bank i. Tourism ii. Agriculture iii. 300,000 more refugees e. Palestine not liberated, but lost i. 1.5 million Palestinians now in Israel ii. UN Resolution 242 November 22, 1967 1. Produced by UN Security Council
Lecture 7
Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
2. 3. 4. Israel, Egypt, and Jordan endorse it, but Syria doesn't Borders back to pre-1967 Israel, Egypt, and Jordan, however, can't agree on peace terms
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IX.
Israel a. Post June War i. Now occupying power ii. Population had conflicting views 1. Unjustified occupation we shouldn't take more land 2. Reclamation of ancient Israel it was an act of God 3. Tensions between secularists and fundamentalists pragmatic solution vs. religious fundamentalists who want to reclaim the lands of ancient Israel b. Israeli political system and institutions i. Rooted in the Yishuv (pre-independent Jewish community) ii. Ben-Gurion 1. Prime Minister and Minister of Defense (shifts positions) 2. Molded the position of Prime Minister and makes it the dominant position iii. Haganah becomes Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) 1. Placed under civil administration 2. Irgun and Stern Gang (Lehi) a. Were terrorists; state didn't want them i. Government forces them gradually into the IDF 1. Took away their common identity ii. Enmity between Ben-Gurion and the leader of the Irgun 3. Melting pot a. All Israelis served b. Age 18 c. Men served 3 years, women 2 years d. Reserves i. Men serve into their 40s, women into their 30s e. Helped unify the state 4. Ben-Gurionism a. Arab states would give up aggression against Israel if shown/reminded of Israeli military superiority i. "You kill one, we kill 10." ii. Self-defeating because Arabs meet force with force 1. Nasser armed agreements with Czechs 2. Rise of Palestinian suicide bombers iv. Executive and legislative 1. Prime Minister and cabinet 2. Knesset (legislative body) a. You vote for the party, not a region or person i. People in party assigned based on ratio of votes 1. To get on the list, you must be very supportive of your party. 3. Suffrage a. Israel the Party State i. Because all you need to get a seat is 1% of the vote 1. Led to many parties 2. To get anything done, must form alliance systems 4. Presidency a. Pretty much ceremonial b. Chaim Weizmann 1949 i. First president ii. First built Zionist support in Britain c. The Israeli state i. Population issues
Lecture 7
Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
1. 2. 3.
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1948 population: 650,000 1951 population: 1.3 million Most of population were Ashkenazim a. Most coming from eastern Europe, especially Poland and Russia 4. Sephardim a. Jews from Middle Eastern countries because after 1948, there is a general Jewish mistrust i. Speak Arabic, culture is Arabic ii. Don't integrate as easily iii. Became most impoverished class b. Revolt of the Sephardim 1977 c. Herut: ultra-nationalist party that arose from the ashes of Irgun i. Menachem Begin, the old leader of Irgun, becomes Prime Minister 1. Changes focus of the state 5. Arabs a. Non-Jews in a Zionist state i. Very hard to become citizens b. Exclusion i. Not ruled by same laws ii. Had to carry ID cards iii. Can't form organizations iv. Land could legally be taken for Jewish immigrants c. 1948-1966 Military Administration d. Post 1967 Gaza and West Bank ii. Questions of Nationality 1. Hebrew a living language a. Many languages, so they agreed on this one 2. Diaspora or Israeli a. Identity can't be tied to Diaspora anymore b. Give up Russian, German, etc. names and take Hebrew names 3. National symbols a. Falafel b. Blending of cultures 4. Political identity a. Zionism b. Law of Return (1950): Every Jew has the right to immigrate to Israel i. Problems: Which variation of Judaism is right? Who qualifies as a Jew? c. Court system 1953 i. Religious or secular law? ii. Religious courts are included in the judicial system d. Orthodoxy most influential e. Return of the millet i. Arabs who are Muslim and Christian who have their own judicial systems d. Israel in the world i. Early foreign relations neutrality 1. Neutral in Cold War, but drifted toward the West as Arabs looked to Soviet Union ii. The Special Relationship 1. By 1975, US sent $700 million to Israel a. US hoped the aid would bring regional stability 2. Barrier to USSR 3. Did it work? no a. Often, Israeli actions directly counteracted US interests Israel and Palestinians a. Palestinian Disapora post 1948
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Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
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i. Almost 1 million refugees 1. Scattered throughout Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, West Bank, Gaza Strip 2. Land absorbed by Israel a. Most records destroyed 3. Mainly poor because the wealthier ones leave a. UN Commission on refugees started b. Live in squalid camps 4. Not integrated a. Arab states didn't even seek to integrate them i. More poor people ii. Problems with so many people needing jobs, education iii. Keep them separated A Palestinian identity i. Because they were segregated, they viewed themselves as a separate group 1. They hope an outside force will help a. Various ideologies picked up, but none really help Rise of the PLO 1964 i. Arab League oversees it 1. PLO is not its own group ii. Based in Cairo because the Arab League is in Cairo 1. Nasser keeps his eye on it iii. Israel and Palestinians 1. Leaders are wealthy, so there is a disconnect between leaders and Palestinian poor/refugees Impact of the June War 1967 i. Altered Palestinian perceptions ii. Palestine lost completely to Israel iii. There are still Palestinian groups attacking most successful is al Fatah Rise of al Fatah i. Formed in Kuwait, moved to Jordan to be closer to Palestine ii. Most of its leaders were in refugee camps at one point or another iii. Yasir Arafat 1. Chairman of PLO 1969 (to 2003) iv. Palestinian nationalism main goal 1. Avoids all ideologies that focus on religious or political goals a. Trying to transcend all ideologies v. Armed struggle vi. Refused UN Resolution 242 because they don't even recognize Israel's right to exist because they're on Palestinian land 1. Resolution looks at Palestinians as refugees with no right to the land a. Doesn't do anything for the Palestinians Other groups i. PFLP Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine 1. Formed by Habash (Christian, pro-Nasser) ii. DFLP Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine 1. Leftist organization, socialist minded; focused on workers PLO at work i. Eventually seen as Palestinian government in exile ii. Find work for refugees iii. Schools iv. Medical care v. Representation 1. Eventually got a seat at the UN 2. By the 70s, they were able to open some offices in European countries (kind of like embassies) Black September, 1970
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Nasserism and the Middle East in the Cold War
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j.
i. Guerilla warfare with Israel increased 1. Gives them sense of identity 2. Most attacks came from Jordan a. Problem for King Husayn because it undermines his authority ii. King Husayn 1. September, 1970 and PFLP a. Four airliners hijacked and landed in Jordan 2. Husayn's decision Break Palestinian power a. Jordanian army attacks Palestinians, both guerillas and civilians i. Led by Pakistani general 1. Convinces Husayn to talk to the US a. US gets Israeli air force to intimidate Syria not to get involved b. 15 September, 1970 c. Activities continued into 1971 Strangers in a Strange Land i. After Black September, Palestinians truly realize nobody wants to support them 1. Their only option is terrorism to focus world attention on their plight ii. PLO moves to Lebanon iii. 1972 Munich Olympics 1. Group seizes Israeli team and executes them The occupied territories i. Crowded areas Gaza and West Bank ii. Israeli views 1. Military these are strategic areas they don't want to give up 2. Political land in exchange for peace 3. Religious lands are sacred, so they don't want to give them up iii. What to do with the population? 1. Integration could dilute the Jewish identity. 2. Avoid decisions and ignore the problem as much as possible. 3. Military occupation to keep the Arabs separated 4. Settlements a. Likud bloc 1977 i. Begin's political party ii. Suburban planning to attract the middle class immigrants b. Land appropriation from Arabs for security purposes i. Also, appropriated uncultivated and unregistered lands iv. Israeli Rule 1. Economic ties a. Palestinians could work in Israel and get higher wages there, so they were tied economically to Israel b. Palestinian imported goods have additional taxes, so they're more expensive 2. Collective punishment a. To gain political power i. Could close down businesses, arrest everyone, etc. b. PLO gains Palestinian support because they have no one else to turn to