CHAPTER ONE Rhetoric: the study of communication in ancient days Rhetoricians: the teachers of communication/rhetoric Aristotle: founded the Lyceum, student of Plato, tutored Alexander the Great, lectured about philosophy, science, and logic. Invented ethos, pathos, and logos. Plato: Aristotle's teacher of philosophy Peripatetic School: Aristotle's school named after the corridors in which he had his talks Ethos: swaying an audience through personal character Pathos: swaying an audience by arousing emotions Logos: swaying an audience through the wording and logic of the method. Corax and Tisias: Sicilian Greeks who studied rhetoric and taught litigants to effectively order their ideas. Classical Period: 5th Century B.C. to 4th Century A.D. (900 yrs). Ancient Greece, Roman Empire, and Christianity. Sophists: foreign teachers who taught speech and earned their income as professional speechwriters and political consultants. Cicero: prominent Roman politician, considered Rome's finest orator, who created the 5 canons of rhetoric. Canons of Rhetoric: Invention, Style, Arrangement, Memory, Delivery Invention: process of deciding on the subject matter of one's speech and discovering information and arguments that would lead to sound conclusions. Style: process of selecting the proper words to convey a message. Plain Style: built ethos by convincing the audience of the speaker's good character, good sense, and trustworthiness. Logical, clear, and explained. Middle Style: emphasized logos by impressing the audience with the soundness of the speaker's position; it consisted of intricate argumentation and careful philosophical distinctions. Vigorous Style: based on pathos, pulled out the stops, and was eloquent and emotional. Cicero warned speakers not to use this without elements of the other two styles. Arrangement: ways to order ideas effectively. Intro, statement of purpose, arguments, and then conclusion. Memory: the ability to hold content, style, and arrangement in one's mind. Delivery: using a pleasing voice and graceful gestures as to not undermine the effect of the speech. Least important. Quintilian: the last of the great classical theorists; defined rhetoric of the good man speaking well. Medieval Period: 400-1400 Renaissance: 1400-1600 Augustine: a major Christian theorist who argued that it would be foolish for truth to take its stand unarmed against falsehood. Natural Signs: smoke, which causes one to think of fire, caused by God. Conventional Signs: the spoken or written word, created by humans. Interpretation more difficult. Modern Period: 1600-1900, new attitudes toward knowledge revitalized the study of rhetoric. Empiric: based on observation Classical Approach: set out to recover the insights of the great classical rhetoricians and adapt them to modern times. Psychological/Epistemological Approach: investigated the relationship of communication and thought, trying to understand in a scientific way how people could influence one another through speech. Belletristic Approach: focused on writing and speaking as art forms, developing critical standards for judging drama, poetry, and oratory. Elocutionary Approach: designed elaborate systems of instruction to improve speakers' verbal and nonverbal presentation. Francis Bacon: identified "The Idols of the Tribe" that referred to fallacies in thinking due to human nature. Idols of the Cave are individual prejudices we bring with us due to our backgrounds and personalities. Idols of the Market Place are social in nature and center on imprecise use of language. Idols of the Theater are fallacies that occur when we accept fashionable ideas uncritically. We should be on guard against these prejudices in our own though and speech and those of others. Rene Descartes and John Locke: mistrusted normal uses of rhetoric, and argued that truth could be obtained only through discourse that was solidly grounded in an understanding of human rationality. George Campbell: combined modern thinkers' ideas and combined them with the classics. Believed that receivers were active participants in the persuasion process, and the effective communicator studied the inner workings of the human mind. Scientific Method: a belief in controlled laboratory experimentation and carful, objective measurement. Scientists believed that one could understand a phenomenon only by reducing it to its most basic elements or variables, manipulating these variables in a controlled situation, and observing the results. Source Credibility: the extent to which a communicator is considered believable and competent. CHAPTER 2 Definition: clarify concepts by indicating their boundaries. Breadth: how broad or narrow we want an issue to be. Intentionality: is it or is it not on purpose? Sender-Based Communication: those people who locate communication in the source of the information. Receiver-Based Communication: The person who assigns meaning to the communication is important. Symbols: arbitrary and conventionalized representations. Spoken Symbolic Interaction: the way we use symbols, primarily words, to create common meaning and to share that meaning with one another. Nonverbal Interaction: the unspoken, often unintentional behavior that accompanies verbal communication and helps us fully interpret its meaning. Model: an abstract representation of a process, a description of its structure or function. Hel ups understand how a process works. Explanatory Function: divide a process into constituent parts and showing us how the parts are connected. Predictive Function: If... Then... questions. IF we add another traffic light, THEN will we eliminate gridlock? Future indicator. Control Function: show us how to control a process. Perspective: a coherent set of assumptions about the way a process operates. Psychological Perspective: focuses on what happens inside the heads of the communicators as they transmit and receive messages. Social Constructionist Perspective: Sees communication as a process whereby people, using the tools provided by their culture, create collective representations of reality. It emphasizes the relationship between communication and culture. Pragmatic Perspective: Communication consists of a system of interlocking, interdependent moves, which become patterned over time. GAME PLAY. Sender/Receiver: encodes and decodes meaning. Encoding: translating a thought/idea into a message Message: encoded so that a person can help another person understand a thought. Channel: a message's medium of transportation. Destination: the receiver gets the message here through the channel to decode it. Decoding: Understanding the message, then deciding on how to reply. Feedback: receiver gives this to sender to help them understand whether or not the communication was successful. Mental Set: consists of a person's beliefs, values, attitudes, feelings, and so on. Noise: any distraction that interferes with or changes a message during transmission. Laws Approach: describe cause and effect laws that connect communication variables. Applied to psychological perspective models. Symbolic Codes: the way we've been taught to process information. Cognitive Customs: the beliefs, attitudes, and values that make up our cultural traditions. Cultural Traditions: comprised of our beliefs, attitudes, and values. Sets of Rules and Roles: guide our actions. Rules Approach: social constructionists. Believe that human behavior is not caused as much as it is chosen. Partners: when two people communicate in a pragmatic model. Acts: individual moves, or modes of communication between partners. Interact: two-act sequence between partners Payoffs: the reason that acts are repeated: something is understood or gained. Interdependence: payoffs depend on their partner's actions. Patterns: learning to play correctly: good moves vs. bad moves. Systems Approach: most compatible with pragmatic mode. Describe interdependent patterns of behavior rather than individual behavior. Cultural Studies Approach: new approach: similarity between communication and power. Quite political. Discursive Act: act of communication Text: act of communication Subject Position: a role or stance to take when responding to text. Ethnography of Communication: identify speech community, speech situations, speech events, and speech acts to observe communication. Speech Community: people who share common attitudes toward speech. Speech Situation: clearly marked occasion that calls for speech. Speech Events: identifiable sequence of speech activity. Speech Acts: purpose served by forms of talk. Situation: setting and scene of interaction Participants: who speaks, who is addressed Ends: goals and outcomes of interaction Acts Sequences: content, means of expression Key: tone or spirit of interaction Instrumentalities: channels or media of interaction Norms: rules regulating interaction Genre: type of communication enacted CHAPTER 13 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH Question Oriented Methodological Replicable Self-Critical Cumulative and Self-Correcting Cyclical Communication Inquiry Formulate a research question Choose a research methodology Design a sampling strategy Gather and analyze data Interpret data and share results Five Contemporary Research Methods Rhetorical Criticism: choosing a rhetorical act to study, describe its purpose, audience and content, then examine the rhetorical strategies employed and evaluate their effectiveness. How did the president build audience identification in the last presidential campaign? Content Analysis: focuses on text: measure message content to determine how often a given unit of content occurs. Do Republican and Democratic senatorial candidates employ different kinds of symbols in campaign speeches? Conservation Analysis: obtains a sample of talk, transcribes and examines it, and draws inferences about it. Examine the sequential relationship, functions, and effects of the moves in a given conversation. How are conversational openings and closing structured? Ethnography observes behavior in its natural setting. What are the primary functions of talk for male members of an urban, blue-collar neighborhood? Unobtrusive Methods: opt to observe traces of their communicative behavior unobtrusively. Measures of erosion or accretion. Racial tension measured by graffiti.