2 Exam Essay Questions
2.
Popular culture in Latin America is not something that suddenly sprang up out of
nowhere. The many aspects of popular culture have been around for many years. Televised soccer and telenovelas, dance and music are three examples of popular culture that not only have been present for a long time; they also contribute and help mold to Latin America's national identity. In the book Companion to Latin American Studies, Silvia Bermdez states that Latin America has made ftbol, "an integral part of its popular culture, to such a degree that a so-called "Latin American" style of play has been equated with pure poetry and magic as opposed to a European style considered efficient and systematic." Latin America's admiration for soccer has roots dating back to the late 1890s whenever the British came to build railroads, telegraph lines and invest in mining and banking. As soccer became more and more popular, it began to rival the television juggernaut; telenovelas. Telenovelas, or soap operas, are the most popular television shows in Latin America. The best part about telenovelas is that according to Bermdez, "They bring together in front of the television sets audiences from all walks of life, transcending cultural, social and gender boundaries." Telenovelas are not favored by one gender, one social class or one cultural group over another. Hence, the reason that makes them of such ubersignificance in Latin America is that anyone can enjoy them, regardless of who you are. The tango, merengue and salsaare all distinctive dances that originated in Latin America. Both the Argentinean tango and the Dominican merengue originated from lower classes in society. They overcame racial and class prejudice, which later led them to be symbols of national identity. As the dances grew in popularity, the upper classes began to adopt them and they
became forms of ballroom dance. The salsa, which encompasses Afro-Caribbean styles of derivation and origins, is most well renowned for its border crossing. Not only has it become popular in Latin America, it has also associated with the Latina in the USA. Finally, although not the least important aspect of popular culture, is music. Rock en espaol is both a sign of modernity as well as a tool for cultural and political resistance in Argentina, Chile and Mexico. In Argentina in the late 1970s and early 1980s many youth found an outlet to express their anger and rebellion towards the right-wing military dictatorship. After Argentina returned to a democracy, groups such as Soda Stereo and Los Fabulosos Cadillac continued to be an avenue for self-expression. The Mexican group Maldita Vecindad has criticized the Mexican government's corruption and has expressed its support for the daring people who illegally migrate to the USA. These various Latin American bands along with others have allowed Latin Americans to voice their opinions and find consolation from the corrupt governments and activities going on within their respective nations. Latin American popular culture not only contributes to a national identity, but they also help to unite the citizens of Latin America. Throughout times of misfortune and economic failure, popular culture has been an efficient avenue for uniting Latin Americans and constructing a sense of national pride.
5.
Gender and sexual identity are both omnipresent factors which have been around for
hundreds or even thousands of years. Latin America, in particular, has shaped and reshaped its ideals towards gender and sexuality beginning with the first years of colonization all the way up to the present day. Scholars believe that to understand modern views of sexuality in Latin American you must first understand its religious roots, Christianity, for example. In the 10th century, the established view of sexuality was very forbidding. Although this view was not solitary and there were other differing views, it did come to dominate throughout the church. This belief lingered for many years and was brought to Latin America during colonization. Though Catholicism did not take in all of Latin it America, did distinguish the different roles of both men and women. Women were often seen as vulnerable, in need of protection and passive. From this description, people coined the term marianismo. Conversely, men were seen as sexually dominant, domestic leaders and occasionally misogynistic; hence the term machismo. Legislatures also began to see the different roles of sexuality in the culture and they began to take action as well. In the 19th century thinkers began to establish judgmental views on sex. The main emphasis of the legislation was that of morality, primarily prostitutes, homosexuals and venereal diseases. According to Nikki Craske, legitimate sexuality was decent, honorable and regulated (through recognized marriage) and sexual enjoyment was the preserve of men. Men were only allowed to enjoy sex, while the woman's role in sex was that of reproduction. Women finally began to shed their submissive and inferior role in the late 19 th century. Groups of women began to organize and challenge the restrictions placed upon them. Their main goals were voting and the right to receive an education. Many countries began to allow women
to vote, yet they employed literacy clauses which would still restrict indigenous women. By the 1970s, most women in Latin America had finally earned voting privileges. Feminist groups began to take an active role in claiming rights for women in the late twentieth century. These groups battled for an "engendering citizenship." This battle hoped to influence both public policy and legislation into being more gender-aware.
In Latin America defining, race is a very difficult and meticulous task. What should the difference in race be based on? In the following paragraphs I will detail the different ways in which race is defined in Latin America. The simplest way to define particular races in Latin America would be to simply examine phenotypes (physical appearances) of the people. From this you could easily establish four or five particular races in Latin America simply based on skin color and outward appearance. Yet, according to scholars, you cannot divide these groups into races because although there are significant differences in appearances, there is no existence of different biological human races. One current view of race in Latin America does approach it in a simple, biological manner, dividing the people into three groups; blacks (descendents of African slaves), Indians and whites (descendants of Europeans). Unfortunately, these groups were rather broadly defined and would often encompass many other skin colors and races. A zambo, mixture of Indian and black, was considered a black person as well as a mulatto, who was a mixture of white and black. Once these beliefs in differing race were establish, the concept of white supremacy was employed. Race became a basis for social classification and a hierarchical pyramid was established in which whites were on top and blacks and Indians were on bottom. After World War 2, organizations and governments began to study their nation's demographics and social class structures. Scientists from France, USA and Brazil studied in Brazil concluding that biological ancestry was not as important as your social class. Peru was similar to Brazil in that they focused on what would be called culture, or spirit or soul, instead of ancestry and biological makeup. Unfortunately, in Peru the Indigenous people were seen as inferior and the Mestizos were seen as corrupt, immoral and threatening. Yet, this was not the case throughout Latin America.
The difficulty in defining race in Latin America is because of the diverse and complex mixture of different cultures. The immigration of Europeans dating all the way back to the 1500s, the transport of slaves in the 1800s and the presence of many groups of Indians have left Latin America as a world of its own. The many different skin colors, physical features, religions and cultures all mix together to form the diverse community of Latin America. It is impossible to divide Latin America into races because everyone is so different, that is the beauty of it.