Outline
Chapter Lecture 10: Social Psychology
Social Self
Person Perception
Impression Formation Schemas and Stereotypes Attributional Reasoning
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Social Psychology
Cognitive psychology examines the basic processes that underlie perception, attention, mental representations, memory, reasoning, problem solving, and language Up to this point, social context has been absent from most of what we have discussed Social context: personal and interpersonal settings and motivations (e.g., goal states) Social psychology examines the influence that social context has on way people think, feel, and behave 1. Internal or reflected context The Self 2. External or interactive context The Group
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The Self: Who We Are
From a subjective standpoint, our perception of who we are can differ the perceptions of others Self-concept: sum of one's beliefs and attitudes toward oneself Subjective sense of who each of us is (i.e., personal identity) Consists of positive and negative attributes Includes...
Our goals: What we want to do or who we want to be in the future Our beliefs: What we value and how we look at the world
Can be...
Physical Fitness and athletic talents Mental Education, learned skills,and intellectual abilities Spiritual Awareness of value of self/others in society
Involves a complex interaction of how we perceive ourselves and how we want others to perceive us (i.e., failures: being aware vs. projecting)
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Knowing Ourselves
Each of us can explain our beliefs and behaviors so everyone is an expert in the self Introspection: looking inside to gain self-relevant knowledge (e.g., memories, purpose, etc.)
Even if a behavior is automatic, we will try to infer the reasoning behind the behavior (called self-perception theory) We observe our behavior and then infer conclusions Our inferences are guided by beliefs about the relation between states and behavior (e.g., sleep when tired) Multiple interpretative habits / biases
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Knowing Ourselves: The self is special
Autobiographical memories: memories for events that have taken place in one's life. Recency Effect
Reminiscence Bump
Rubin, 2000
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Knowing Ourselves: The self is special
The medial prefrontal area is "turned on" when we think about ourselves Blood flows to this when we attribute qualities to ourselves but not when attributing them to others Also described as self-awareness monitor
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Heatherton et al. (2006). Medial PFC activity differentiates self from close others. Scan, 1, 18-25
Defining who we are...
From within... We place ourselves ahead of others because we our familiar with our own beliefs, motives, and behaviors Done in defense of the self
Maintain identity Build self-assurance (a.k.a. self-flattery)
Occurs because of our narrow perspective as an observer Based on others... Information reflected back to us by others is used to define self How others respond to our behavior tells us about how our identities are perceived outside the self (i.e., feedback)
Can be consistent with our own perception "I feel awful and Greg could tell. I must really look bad." Can be inconsistent with our own perception "I must not have looked as nervous as I felt."
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Defining ourselves from within
Above-average effect: occurs when, collectively speaking, more than 50% of a group rate themselves as being above average on some task or ability
Each member of the group has their own criteria for defining optimal performance An individual's performance defined by positive instances that are brought to mind first (remember availability heuristic?)
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Defining ourselves from within
Self-serving bias: individuals are more likely to take credit for successes than failures
Attribute the positive to ourselves more easily than the negative 1. No one likes to fail 2. State of constantly striving to improve Carries over outside of self to include those to whom we are close or for whom we feel responsible
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Defining ourselves from within
Impression management: strategies or steps taken to guide or influence how a person appears to others
a.k.a. "putting up a front" or "acting the part" Sometimes we have to disguise our feelings to not reveal true state of self Protects identity from being misrepresented Example: Hiding nervousness during a job interview Self-handicapping: a self-protective strategy in which one arranges for an obvious and non-threatening obstacle to one's own performance, such that any failure can be attributed to the obstacle and not to one's own limitations. Indicates lack of desire to pursue success in defense of self Provides an "out" -- an excuse now exists for our failure (e.g., Procrastination: Should have, could have, would have)
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Defining ourselves from within
Typically, we use our attitudes to shape our own behaviors
Examples: A person who is in favor of gun control will probably not own a gun A person in favor of conservation will probably recycle
Weak attitudes can be shaped by external forces
Foot-in-the-door technique: a technique of persuasion in which one first obtains a small concession that then makes it easier to persuade the target to make a subsequent, larger concession. Initially used by salespeople Used to get donations
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Defining ourselves from within
Weak attitudes can be shaped by external forces
When we work towards a difficult goal, we will justify the effort and sacrifice by placing a higher value on the goal state Examples: Hazing that occurs when a person pledges for a fraternity Basic training in the military Cognitive Dissonance: unpleasant feeling (a) that emerges from an inconsistency within the self, and (b) that is reduced via a reinterpretation of self-related knowledge to eliminate the inconsistency.
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Defining ourselves based on others
Despite our efforts to "save face" or to put up a superficial exterior to hide our feelings, sometimes it is impossible to keep self-relevant information from leaking out Others act as a mirror to reflect our self-knowledge Other people observe our state and respond to us based on their interpretation of our behavior The reflected behavior acts to intensify our feelings or reinforce our self-knowledge Example: The case of depression and mood disorders
Self-fulfilling prophecy: a prediction that, in being made, causes itself to become true
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Defining ourselves based on others
Pygmalion effect: knowledge about us that is held by others influences how we are treated, shaping our behaviors to conform with this knowledge
Special form of self-fulfilling prophecy dependent on info held by others that we might not be aware of Example: Teachers and academic advisors putting more effort into students with higher GPA
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Defining ourselves based on others
In addition to how we interpret the direct actions of others, merely believing that we belong to an inferior/superior group can influence performance Stereotype threat: mechanism by which a person's performance on a test is influenced by her perception that the tests results may confirm others' stereotypes about her Examples: Older adults' memory performance Math abilities of women
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Lecture Outline
Chapter 10: Social Psychology
Social Self
Person Perception
Impression Formation Schemas and Stereotypes Attributional Reasoning
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Person Perception
Managing other's representation of us involves modifying our own behavior so that we display the attributes that we think best represent who we are We use responses of others as feedback to develop a sense of how we are perceived At the same time, we observe others to learn about ourselves, we are also learning about others Impression formation goes both ways
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Impression Formation
Our conceptions or representations of others involves an organization of their attributes Attributes emerge from behaviors. Two features of behavior observed:
Diagnosticity: relevance of a behavior to a personal attribute Example: Stealing Non-diagnostic: Helping yourself to a sample of a product sold in a bulk food store Diagnostic: Helping yourself to someone else's labtop computer left unattended in the library Salience: ease with which a behavior is identified as a part of a trait Example: Alcoholism Not salient: After work every night, Bill goes home and drinks alone. Salient: When Bill goes out to dinner with his co-workers after 18 work, he always gets drunk.
Impression Formation
Our impressions of others tend to hover around a central or organizing theme Central trait: a trait that is associated with many other attributes of the person who is being judged
Tested by giving people a list of attributes about a hypothetical target Participants write sketches of target Sketch organized such that less diagnostic attributes serve the more diagnostic attribute
Intelligent / Warm: "Driven to do something to be of help to others" Intelligent / Cold: "Is calculating and manipulative, unsympathetic to others"
Main theme varies based on importance to domain
Reviewing job candidates: Intelligence Organizational management: Leadership involvement: Interpersonal Honesty (Trustworthiness)
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Jim can be described using the following attributes. How easy would it be to get along with Jim?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Very difficult to get along with Jim Moderately difficult to get along with Jim Somewhat difficult to get along with Jim Neither easy nor difficult to get along with Jim Somewhat easy to get along with Jim Moderately easy to get along with Jim Very easy to get along with Jim
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dependable
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intelligent
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humorous
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generous
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critical
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resentful
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mean
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obnoxious
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Jim can be described using the following attributes. How easy would it be to get along with Jim?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Very difficult to get along with Jim Moderately difficult to get along with Jim Somewhat difficult to get along with Jim Neither easy nor difficult to get along with Jim Somewhat easy to get along with Jim Moderately easy to get along with Jim Very easy to get along with Jim
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Ted can be described using the following attributes. How easy would it be to get along with Ted?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Very difficult to get along with Ted Moderately difficult to get along with Ted Somewhat difficult to get along with Ted Neither easy nor difficult to get along with Ted Somewhat easy to get along with Ted Moderately easy to get along with Ted Very easy to get along with Ted
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strict
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jealous
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stubborn
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stingy
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considerate
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amusing
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warm
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dependable
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Ted can be described using the following attributes. How easy would it be to get along with Ted?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Very difficult to get along with Ted Moderately difficult to get along with Ted Somewhat difficult to get along with Ted Neither easy nor difficult to get along with Ted Somewhat easy to get along with Ted Moderately easy to get along with Ted Very easy to get along with Ted
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Which person had the higher rating, Jim or Ted?
Why?
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Jim
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. dependable intelligent humorous generous critical resentful mean obnoxious 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Ted
strict jealous stubborn stingy considerate amusing warm dependable
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Domain: Likeability or friendliness
Impression Formation
First impressions that we have of others tend to stick When things start on a positive note, we have attributes that we can use to override negative information
Lists of attributes presented to groups of participants gradually Group A (Jim): Positive Negative Group B (Ted): Negative Positive
If 1st impression is used as anchor (i.e., is "defended"), impression should be more positive for Group A than B If reasoning holds, Jim should be more sociable than Ted Older adults behave differently
More sensitive to diagnosticity of attributes Positive attributes do not have the same ability to override negative attributes
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Lecture Outline
Chapter 10: Social Psychology
Social Self
Person Perception
Impression Formation Schemas and Stereotypes Attributional Reasoning
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Expectancies influence our impressions
Some attributes carry more weight than others in our impressions
Central trait can create expectations for how a person should behave (i.e., a heuristic approach to getting to know others)
Implicit theories of personality: Beliefs about the way in which different patterns of behavior of people hang together and why they do so Like with memory, we form schemas to account for behaviors that we expect to see from a person who is supposed to have a specific trait
Introverted Schema: Shy, Quiet, Alone, Thoughtful (i.e., pensive) Extroverted Schema: Outgoing, Talkative, Open, Spirited
Schemas serve as social heuristics, reducing the number of observations that we must make before drawing conclusions
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Go Dawgs!! Woof!
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The downside of schemas
Social heuristics promote drawing inferences based on limited info Fosters reliance on stereotypes: simplistic representations used to categorize complex groups
Stereotypes emerge from superficial examination of individuals Most salient attributes are organized into a single unit Not immune to ignorance of the observer (e.g., Powerful-other effect) Example: Polack Stereotype: Stupid and backwards Source: Dislike that Socialist and Communist political leaders in Eastern Europe had for Catholic and Jewish Polish citizens who followed tenets of faith instead of nationalist political movements Outcome: Jokes Following the assault of an elderly woman, the police rounded up the usual suspects for a lineup. Of the group, the Polish suspect stepped forward and screamed "That's her!!"
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The downside of schemas
Social heuristics promotes drawing inferences based on limited info Fosters reliance on stereotypes: simplistic representations used to categorize complex groups
Stereotypes emerge from superficial examination of individuals Most salient attributes are organized into a single unit Not immune to ignorance of the observer (e.g., Powerful-other effect)
Prejudice: use of stereotypes when forming impressions of others
1. 2. 3. Has 3 components: Cognitive: beliefs about group Affective: emotions experienced when beliefs are violated or activated Behavior: acts of discrimination (observer treats target negatively because of biased impression)
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Jane Elliott's
rd 3
Grade Class
Class starts out relatively normal Mrs. Elliott (a powerful other) establishes a culture that promotes prejudice Stereotype becomes cognitively engrained, and is able to rouse emotions and trigger prejudicial behavior
Cognitive: Blue eyes are better than brown eyes Affective: Blue-eyed children dislike brown-eyed children (e.g., "Get off that slide. It's only for people with blue eyes!") Behavior: Russell calls John names, so John hits him in the gut
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Fostered by a maledominated culture / environment
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The downside of schemas
Schemas foster in-group/out-group division of society
In-group: social group that one is a member of Out-group: social group with which one does not identify or to which one does not belong
Stereotypes reinforce the out-group homogeneity effect
A member of the in-group tends to view members of the out-group as more alike or less varied than members of the in-group. "They're all alike."
Conversely, stereotypes promote in-group favoritism
People in the in-group justify their own behavior in a positive way, discounting anything that is detrimental to their self-concept
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Lecture Outline
Chapter 10: Social Psychology
Social Self
Person Perception
Impression Formation Schemas and Stereotypes Attributional Reasoning
51
Attributional Reasoning
Observed behaviors are interpreted for meaning
Causal attribution: process used to interpret (or infer) the cause of behavior.
A person's behavior can be attributed to his or her... Disposition: personal characteristics (i.e., something about the person) Situation: characteristics of the environment in which the person exists Typically, both the environment and personal characteristics of the individual are responsible for the observed behavior
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Drawing Causal Inferences
1. Categorization
Automatic process in which we identify the actor and the actor's behavior Estimation of the extent to which the behavior is due to the actor's disposition (personal characteristics) Effortful process by which we estimate the influence that the actor's environment has on his behavior
2. Characterization
3. Correction
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Drawing Causal Inferences
1. Categorization
Automatic process in which we identify the actor and the actor's behavior Estimation of the extent to which the behavior is due to the actor's disposition (personal characteristics) Effortful process by which we estimate the influence that the actor's environment has on his behavior
2. Characterization
3. Correction
Sometimes we bias our interpretation of the cause of the actor's behavior towards the dispositional factors
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Fundamental Attribution Error
By default, we often assume that a person's behavior is entirely explained by their personal characteristics This is called the Fundamental Attribution Error When committing this mistake, we fail to account for the role that the person's situation might play in driving his or her behavior (i.e., correction fails) In other words, we determine that the behavior of the actor corresponds with the personal qualities of the actor (also called the correspondence bias)
Tendencies to defend the self create an actor-observer difference
Actor explaining personal behavior: focuses on external, situational causes Observer explaining actor's behavior: focuses on internal, dispositional qualities of actor
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Example of Fundamental Attribution Error
DA: "That person is in an idiot! Doesn't he know the rules?" SA: "There must be an emergency because he didn't take turns. Competing interests are at work... Goal A: Understand the target using self as comparison Goal B: Understand the target using group as comparison
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Lecture Outline
Chapter 10: Social Psychology
Social Self
Person Perception
Impression Formation Schemas and Stereotypes Attributional Reasoning
57