Exam Final Study Guide Material covered up to test 2 Know the definition and focus of the sociological imagination and the difference between private troubles and public issues. Sociological imagination the recognition of the relationship between individual experiences and public issues o Intersection of Biography and History (and Culture) Public issues what is happening in the social world outside of one's personal control o Many personal experiences can and should be interpreted in the context of largescale forces in the wider society
o Know what the sociological perspective focuses on and what it filters out. Sociological perspective the sociological perspective holds that you can best understand your personal experiences and problems by examining their broader context, by looking at the big picture o Looking at the big picture o Focuses on power, trends & patterns, demographic categories (age, gender, class, ethnicity, etc.), social facts o Filters out personality, single cases, biology (genetics, hormones, pheromones) Know the definition of bad faith and why it is important in our discussion of the influences on human behavior and social change. Bad faith pretending you gotta or can't o Evasion of the agony of choice o Shadow of human liberty only possible because we are free to choose or avoid choosing o Not all choices are created equal o You have limited choices Choice takes place within social structures Everything is the result of choices Choices have consequences Choices can be rendered difficult or invisible
What are the standards by which we'll be measuring US policies, practices, laws, trends and why do we use these standards rather than something else? American ideals in action Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness o Equality of opportunity o Equality of respect o Individualism (importance of individual liberty, importance of fulfilling potential) o Belief in Meritocracy (system where individuals are assessed and rewarded on basis of individual ability and achievement) What is the idea of differential access to choice and what sociological concepts does it highlight? Differential access to choice privilege/inequality (privilege is the cause of equality) (some choices are easier than other) all choices are technically open to you, if you choose to partake in them but because of the way society is structured, it makes some choices easier than others Sociological concepts some choices are easier than others will reveal some of the structures of sociology privileges (such as white kids in education) Know the definition and invisibility of social facts and the metaphor we've used throughout the semester to remind us of this aspect of social life. We don't recognize social facts until they are presented to us we don't ever really consider them because we've never been presented any alternative Metaphor Fish doesn't know wet Know the meaning of my claim people need people to be people and how this relates to cases of feral children discussed in text chapter 4. People need people to be people. people are social by nature o People live much of their lives in groups we just want to belong Relates to feral children Genie project and others need people to survive and fully develop o Children need contact, a sense of belonging, affection, safety, and someone to teach them knowledge and skills this is their socialization into the world through which they develop a self Know the definitions of ethnocentrism (ch 3), the egocentric fallacy, inductive and deductive reasoning (ch 2) and the importance of recognizing these modes of thinking for assessing information and forming opinions. Ethnocentrism describes the tendency to view one's own group and its culture expectations as right, proper, and superior to others Egocentric Fallacy Inductive Reasoning begins with specific facts (data) or evidence and tries to find or develop a theory--more generalized set of concepts--to explain the facts o Inductive reasoning connects scientifically collected facts to social theory; it tries to find or create a general theory to explain the facts o Moving from specific data (facts) to general theories Deductive Reasoning begins with broad general ideas, or theories, of human social behavior, and from these ideas more specific patterns are identified or deduced using logical reasoning o Deductive reasoning tests the theory using scientific research methods to obtain facts (data) relevant to that theory o Moving from general theories to specific hypotheses
Know the definition of the Thomas theorem and why it is important when studying categories that become significant to human beings. Thomas theorem states that if people define situations as real, their definitions have real consequences o Glenda says, names do hurt or, if something is defined as real, it's real in its consequences o People are meaning making machines o We live in a world of our own making What is the smallest unit that sociologists study? 2 people Dyad o Sociology is the scientific study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior o Sociology studies relationships, not individual cases (like psychology) Know the chart from text chapter 2 on page 55 and why it is important to know the starting assumptions about human beings and the level of analysis when evaluating the usefulness of a theoretical perspective. Cooperative versus Competitive Perspectives Macro Analysis Micro Analysis Humans viewed as cooperative Structural-Functional Symbolic Interactionism (people interact with others on Theory Theory
the basis of shared meanings and common symbols)
Humans viewed as competitive
(behavior governed by selfinterest)
Conflict Theory (group interests)
Rational Choice Theory (individual interests)
Structural-Functional Theory a theory that assumes that all parts of the social structure, culture, and social processes work together to make the whole society run smoothly and harmoniously Symbolic Interactionism Theory sharing meanings of symbols that human have created whether material or nonmaterial Conflict Theory conflict is natural and inevitable Rational Choice Theory evaluate the costs and rewards of engaging in interaction From lecture know the focus, main questions, key concepts, level of analysis, and limitations/critique of the three theoretical perspectives emphasized throughout the semester Overview of the Three Theoretical Perspectives
Know the assumptions of sociological research. Sociological research involves systematic observation, data collection, description, and explanation (sometimes prediction) according to the scientific method (systematic collection and analysis that increases reliability and validity) Assumptions: o People are social by nature ...people need people to be people o People live much of their lives in groups we just want to belong o Interaction between individuals and society flow both ways... Are you a product of your environment or creator of you social universe? YES! o Conflict and change are inevitable in groups of people... the only constant is change, and the (more than) occasional disagreement o Human behavior can be studied, understood and explained from empirical studies that utilize the scientific method Know what the linguistic relativity theory is and why it is important for our explanation of human beings' understanding of the world and behaviors that result from that understanding. Linguistic relativity theory posits that people who speak a specific language make interpretations of their reality based on their knowledge of language o (Used to be known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) o Language not only allows us to speak about our world, it shapes the way we see the world o Ex: time, values and meanings that arise with words that reinforce racist, sexist, etc beliefs (black, white) Know the definitions of manifest and latent functions, role strain and role conflict, master status, ascribed and achieved statuses, roles versus statuses, formal and informal agents of socialization (with examples). Manifest functions functions or tasks that are the planned outcomes of social patterns or institutions o Ex: the function of the microwave oven has been to allow people to prepare meals quickly and easily, facilitating life in overworked and stressed modern families
Latent functions consequences that are often unplanned and unintended o Ex: the unplanned consequences of the microwave oven were creation of a host of new jobs and stimulation of the economy as people wrote new cookbooks and as businesses were formed to produce microwavable cookware and prepared foods for the microwave Role strain tension between roles within one of the social statuses o Causes individual to be pulled in many directions by various obligations of the single status o Ex: student has to study, attend class, turn in assignments setting is school relationships are teachers, students, roommates Role conflict conflict between the roles of two or more social statuses o The conflict can come from within an individual or be imposed from outside o Ex: college athletes face role conflicts from competing demands on their time; they must complete their studies on time, attend practices and be prepared for games, attend meetings of a Greek house to which they belong, and get home for a little brother's birthday o Ex: student may be going to school, holding down a part-time job, and raising a family Master status occurs when one of an individual's social statuses becomes most important and takes precedence over others o Ex: from the student above going to school, part-time job, and raising a family if the student's child gets sick, the status of the parent comes into conflict with that of student and worker the person may choose, or be informed by others, which status is the master status Ascribed status social statuses that are often assigned at birth and that do not change during an individual's lifetime o Ex: gender, race, ethnic status group Achieved status social status that is chosen or earned by decisions one makes and sometimes by personal ability o Ex: attaining higher education, being a guitarist in a band, being a prisoner in jail (earned positions) Know the characteristics of Weber's ideal type of bureaucracy and the 4 principles of McDonaldization. Ideal type bureaucracy refers to the dominant and essential characteristics of organizations that are designed for reliability and efficiency (Weber) o 1. Division of labor based on technical competence staff are assigned to positions for which credentials make them most qualified o 2. Administrative hierarchy there is a specified chain of command and designated channels of communication o 3. Formal rules and regulations written procedures and rules spell out systemwide requirements o 4. Impersonal relationships written records and formal communication provide a paper trail for all decisions o 5. Emphasis on rationality and efficiency to reach goals use of established processes based on best interest; efficiency is defined in terms of lowest overall cost to the organization in reaching a goal
o 6. Provision of life-long careers employees may spend their entire careers working for the same organization, working their way up McDonaldization term for the process through which the principles of the McDonald's corporation have been integrated into the operation of all organizations o The 4 Principles of McDonaldization: Efficiency same store plans, same mass-produced items, same procedures Predictability the knowledge that each hamburger or piece of chicken will be the same, leaving nothing to chance Calculability the organization can assure that everything fits a standard Increased control over employees and customers so there are fewer variables to consider Know the definition of occupational crime. Occupational crime a violation of the law committed by the individual or group in the course of a legitimate, respected occupation of financial activity o Includes crime against company, customers, employees, and public Know the definitions and examples of social and cultural capital, conspicuous consumption, class consciousness, blaming the victim, and the feminization of poverty. Social capital refers to social networks, shared norms, values, and understanding that facilitate cooperation within or among groups and access to important resources o Networks with others who have influences o It encompasses relationships, support systems and services, community resource accessibility, and the interconnections between them, and is embedded in the social structure o Increasing an individual's social capital by increasing educational attainment, job skills, and ability to take advantage of available resources can reduce the chances of going to prison in the first place and of recidivism, or repeat offenses and incarceration Cultural capital language patterns, values, experiences, and knowledge learned from home o Knowledge and access to important information in society o Schools place children into courses and academic groups based in part on the labels they receive due to their cultural capital Conspicuous consumption displaying goods in a way that others will notice and that will presumably earn the owner respect o Ex: living in a home that has 6 or 8 bedrooms and 5,000 square feet = conspicuous consumption Class consciousness Mark's theory contrasted to false consciousness something that came upon proletariats (lower classes) o Class consciousness when they do start thinking about their status compared to the bourgeois (higher class) and they start fighting back o False consciousness don't think about their status compared to higher classes Blaming the victim saying it's that person's fault they shouldn't have done this or that etc goes back to not having the sociological perspective our base reaction to anything wrong in society
Feminization of poverty refers to the trend in which single females, increasingly young and with children, make up a growing proportion of those in poverty Know the definition and examples of prejudice, discrimination, ideological, symbolic, and institutional racism, affirmative action, quota systems, and preference policies. Prejudice refers to the attitudes that prejudge a group usually negatively and not based on facts o Prejudiced individuals lump together people with certain characteristics as an undifferentiated group without considering individual differences Discrimination differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities o Individual discrimination is action taken against minority group members which can take the form of exclusion, avoidance, or violence o Institutional discrimination intentional and unintentional actions engrained in the normal or routine part of the way an organization operates that have consequences that restrict minority group members Ideological racism involves the belief that humans are divided into innately different groups, some of which are biologically inferior o Those who hold these views see biological differences as the cause of most cultural and social differences Symbolic racism the insistence that one is not prejudiced or racist, that one is colorblind and committed to equality; however, this insistence is often accompanied by opposition to any social policies that would eliminate racism and make true equality of opportunity possible Institutional racism meso-level discrimination often a normal or routine part of the way an organization operates o Includes both intentional actions, such as laws restricting minorities, and unintentional actions, which have consequences that restrict minorities Affirmative action a social policy created to change the unequal distribution of resources o Strict affirmative action is a policy that involves affirmative or positive steps to make sure that unintended discrimination does not occur Quota systems policies that require employers to hire a certain percentage of minorities Preference policies policies based on the belief that sometimes people must be treated differently in order to treat them fairly and to create equality Know the definition and examples of the stratification effects of intersecting statuses, the boy code, the second shift, endogamy, exogamy, and homogamy. Intersecting statuses you're not just a female, you're a white female and you're a white middle class female. all these different statuses that exist in societies interact and present new meanings The boy code men can't be feminine, they need to be strong and the typical male image The second shift refers to the housework and child care that employed women do after their first-shift jobs Endogamy norms that require individuals to marry inside certain boundaries, whatever the societal members see as protecting the homogeneity of the group o White people tend to marry other white people, rich people tend to marry other rich people
Exogamy norm governing the choice of a mate that requires individuals to marry outside of their own immediate group o Most universal form is incest taboo o Ex: interracial marriage Homogamy in addition to marrying within a group, most people choose a mate with similar social characteristics (age, place of residence, educational background, political philosophy, moral values, and psychological traits) o Very general term What do countries with the lowest teen pregnancy rates have in common? 1. High levels of socioeconomic modernization 2. Openness about discussing sex 3. Relatively low levels of inequality in the society as measured by family income 4. An older minimum legal age for marriage 5. Awareness of the dangers of sexually transmitted diseases 6. A growing economy, which makes young women more optimistic about their futures What is involved with the feminization of an occupation? Feminization of an occupation: o Glass ceiling social forces that keep women from reaching the highest levels of corporate and public responsibility o Sticky floor social forces that keep the vast majority of the world's women stuck in low-paid jobs o Glass escalator even if men do not seek to climb in the organizational hierarchy, occupational social forces push them up the job ladder into higher echelons, especially in female-dominated occupations o the workplace itself is gendered Know Berger's techniques and agents of socialization including the most effective technique and the most powerful agent. Agents of socialization the transmitters of culture the people, organizations, and institutions that teach us who we are and how to thrive in our social world o Agents are the mechanism by which the self learns the values, beliefs, and behaviors of the culture Berger's techniques and agents: o Violence o Political sanctions (rights, access to power) o Economic sanctions (income, fines, promotions, gifts) o Ostracism (rejection, exile) o Ridicule and gossip o Persuasion of intimates o Internalization of norms (most effective technique and most powerful agent) Know the definition of and situations where civil inattention is likely to be employed. Civil inattention when you do something wrong or weird (such as walking around naked) and other people just ignore it, hoping they'll fix it by themselves What are the costs of privilege, what does its existence challenge, and how is it maintained? Privilege unearned advantage based on ascribed characteristics or category membership resulting in unequal opportunities and access to resources Costs of privilege:
o Never fully challenged so never fully know their capabilities or have them fully developed o Never have to see other's perspective so not many (or any) opportunities to develop morally o Limited circle of friends (other people with similar privileges) People with privilege and power in society manipulate agents of socialization so people learn the values, beliefs, and norms of the privileged group(s) From White Whine, what is the author's definition of privilege, examples of taken for granted privilege, and his claims regarding who receives the majority of scholarship monies, places in universities and the reason why many middle class white people cannot afford college. Privilege the ability to presume that your reality is the reality; that your experiences, if white, are universal, and not particular to your racial identity; the ability to assume that you belong and that others will presume that too; the ability to define reality for others, and expect that definition to stick (because you have the power to ensure that it becomes the dominant narrative); the ability to ignore all evidence to the contrary, claim that you yourself are the victim, and get everyone from the President to the Supreme Court to the average white guy on the street to believe it o In other words, it is the default position on the computer of American life Taken for granted: o American history as told to them previously was comprehensive and accurate, as opposed to being largely the particular history of the dominant group o That there are already Ivory Magazines (Vogue and Cosmopolitan), several WETs (CBS, NBC, and ABC), etc just because the norm is not racially-named, doesn't mean it isn't racialized o Whites are given certain points for having alumni, attending top schools, taking AP classes it will be taken for granted that any white student at a college or university belongs there o Whites take most everything for granted in this country they have that privilege Scholarships about 93% of all college scholarship money goes to whites there's a scholarship for pretty much every kind of student (left-handed students, raise horses, related to founding fathers, etc) From the Economy reading, know the trends in post industrial societies, who the key players in service economies are, the outcomes of the shift to non-manual jobs, and the definition of an ownership society. Material covered after test 2 Racism and Sexism wrap up in lectureWhat are the three components of racist and sexist ideologies and the suggestions for eliminating racism and sexism at the individual and policy level? Racist ideologies: o People can be classified into categories on the basis of physical characteristics o A close correspondence exists between physical traits and characteristics such as language, dress, personality, intelligence, and athletic ability o Physical attributes such as skin color and hair texture are so significant that they explain and determine behavior and social, economic, and political inequalities that exist between members of different racial categories
Sexist ideologies: o People can be classified into two categories male and female o A close correspondence exists between physical traits (primary sex characteristics) and characteristics such as emotional control, body language, personality, intelligence, sexual desire, and athletic ability o Physical attributes such as genital appearance are so significant that they explain and determine behavior and the social, economic, and political inequalities that exist between men and women Eliminating racism and sexism: o Make an effort to see similarities as well as understanding differences between people of different genders and ethnicities o Learn to recognize that differences in power and privilege shape relationships between people o Remember the socially constructed nature of ethnic and gender categories o Even so, keep in mind that the experience of the significance of gender and ethnicity is real in its consequences for life chances, quality of life, perceptions, and evaluations o Develop the intellectual discipline to recognize race/gender thinking, a habit of thought where people permit themselves to think of human groups without the vivid sense that groups consist of individuals and that individuals display the full range of human differences and potentials o Carefully consider every situation where race or gender classification occurs and ask whether this instance forwards attempts to correct past injustices and create a fair and equitable society or does it contribute to the maintenance and perpetuation of injustice and inequality Policies to reduce prejudice, isms, and discrimination: o Micro-level policies Individual or small group therapy-psych Consciousness raising, multicultural education o Meso-level policies Organized group contact (work, school, sports) o Macro-level policies Lobbying, educational information dissemination, canvassing Government agencies (Civil Rights Commission, Fair Employment Practices Commission, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) Legislation Nonviolent resistance (protest marches, rallies, watchdog monitoring, and boycotts) Text chapter 11 and lecture from this week Know the structural functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspective on the institution of education-including the evidence presented in the chapter to support each perspective's claims. Structural Functionalist Perspective purposes of education: o Socialization teaching children to be productive members of society
Societies use education to pass on essential information of a culture-- values, skills, and knowledge necessary for survival o Training individuals (for positions in society) Taking standardized tests, receiving grades, asking for recommendation letters o Promoting change and innovation Citizens expect schools to respond to the constant changes in society Institutions of higher education are expected to generate new knowledge, technology, and ideas, and to produce students with up-to-date skills and knowledge to lead industry and other key institutions in society o Enhancing personal and social development In school, children learn that they are no longer accepted regardless of their behaviors as they were in their families They must meet certain expectations and compete for attention and rewards Conflict Perspective stratification and education o Schools used by powerful and affluent groups to ensure that their own self interests are met o Schools do not provide equal educational opportunities for all children in society (creating the reproduction of class) o Schools participate in the stratification process in societies some students receive elite educations and others do not in part because of class, race, and gender differences Symbolic Interactionist Perspective how symbols affect the sense of self or shape social hierarchies o Children are active in creating distinctions between one another and are therefore agents in creating the social reality in which they live o Popularity, a major issue for many children, especially in middle-school years, is mostly a function of being visible and having everyone know who you are by representing the school in an athletic contest, by being attractive, or by being seen in a leadership position Be able to identify the manifest and latent functions of education in the U.S. Manifest functions teaching, learning Latent functions unintended, unorganized, informal results of the educational process o Ex: schools keep children off the streets until they can be absorbed into productive roles in society o Ex: they provide young people with a place to congregate, which in turn fosters a youth culture of music, fashion, slang, dances, dating, and sometimes gangs Be able to identify examples of role strain likely to be experienced within the institution of education. Teachers have guidelines that they need to follow such as grades and etc, but they just want to teach and make sure their students understand the material Students filling the expectations of your social life and your studies Be able to identify examples of Merton's Structural Strain response categories (from text chapter 6) within the institution of education. Merton's Structural Strain response categories:
o 1. Conformity means embracing the society's definition of success and adhering to the established and approved means of achieving success The student works hard despite the academic and financial obstacles, trying to do well in school to achieve success and a good job placement Using legitimate, approved means (education and hard work) to reach goals that society views as worthy o 2. Innovation refers to use of illicit means to reach approved goals The student uses illegitimate means to achieve education goals such as cheating on exams or getting papers from internet sources Success in school is all that matters, not how he/she gets there o 3. Ritualism involves strict adherence to the culturally prescribed rules, even though individuals give up on the goals they hoped to achieve The student may give up the idea of getting good grades and graduating from college, but as a matter of pride and self-image, continues to try hard and to study diligently Conforms to expectations, for example, but with no sense of purpose just does what is told o 4. Retreatism refers to giving up on both the goals and the means A student either bides her time, not doing well, or drops out, giving up on future job goals Abandons or retreats from the goals of a professional position in society and on the means to get there May even turn to a different lifestyle (such as drugs and alcohol) o 5. Rebellion entails rejecting the socially approved ideas of success and the means of attaining that success but replaces those with alternative definitions of success and alternative strategies for attaining the new goals Rebelling against the dominant cultural goals and means, a student may join a radical political group or a commune, intent on developing new ideas of how society should be organized and what a truly educated person should be Know how social and cultural capital are part of the institution of education and how success within this institution is influenced by access (or lack) to these resources. Social capital increasing an individual's social capital by increasing educational attainment, job skills, and ability to take advantage of available resources can reduce the chances of going to prison in the first place and recidivism Cultural capital students bring their language patterns, values, experiences, and knowledge they have learned with them from home referred to as cultural capital o Schools place children into courses and academic groups based in part on the labels they receive due to their cultural capital Know what the No Child Left Behind Act is, what it is intended to do, and the critiques of it. No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) Bush administration standardized tests are used to grade schools first fail is a warning second fail is a pull of the funding o Intended to: Better teachers Better schools Smarter kids
More graduating students o Critiques: Abstract, drill and kill Culturally bland/generic Highly structured, extreme inflexibility (on tests don't really measure anything) Highly individualistic, isolating Teacher-centered, top-down Scripted, unnatural interactions Fragmented learning, part-to-whole Rote learning, memorizing Teaching to the test Heavy print emphasis Dominant culture's values and beliefs Dominant culture only Content irrelevant to community Lowered standards Doesn't take into account the poor home environments or the poor schools that already are not doing well Know the claims of the book discussed in the Where the Boys Are box and what the research shows about gender and education (the evidence that boys are discriminated against, that schools favor boys, and the conclusions). Pg. 335 Black men end up in jail before they go to college Men take more time to graduate Women tend to study more Girls attend undergraduate more and attend and actually care more than boys do boys will be boys boys are naturally considered to be more rambunctious and distracted Know the history of public education in the US (why we have it, what it was supposed to do, how we decided to teach people) and how that is related to current conditions and expectations. Melting pot of Homogenous American o Single language o Single version of history, facts doled out and memorized in catechism of fashion (although controls local of schools themselves and curriculum) o Need to read related to salvation o Free through 12th grade o Emphasis on college education for all (after WWII) o Localized funding o Use of education to solve social problems Strong base of one language, one culture; basis of tradition and religion Mostly hearing one-sided perspectives (hearing whoever is in control) Started in the industrial revolution (integrating everyone) protestants decided you needed to be able to read Education is supposed to solve social problems
Know the definition of the hidden curriculum and how it is taught. Know what Jules Henry said is a major part of that hidden curriculum and what is it designed to turn students into. Hidden curriculum refers to the implicit lessons that students that students who succeed must learn along with the information and material explicitly taught the implicit demands found in every learning institution; students have to learn and respond to these demands in order to succeed within the education system o Includes teaching method, tone of voice, type of assignments, attitudes of fellow students, absentee rate, interruptions and side talk/side activities, number of students, etc. Jules Henry claims: fear of failure/envy of success, competition (win/lose rather than win/win), complete assignments even when purpose is unclear or absent-obedience and unquestioning mindset prepares students for competitive consumption oriented culture Know how the various (and sometimes conflicting) interests of various groups and levels of community interact in the school system. Individuals want to enhance their status Community leaders expect schools to produce youths who will conform and contribute to the community Ethnic and religious groups want their values and their worldview represented in the curriculum Societal leaders expect that education train students to be contributing members of society Text chapter 12 and lecture from this week What is the sociological definition of religion? Religion gives meaning, makes sense of life, death, events that seem bigger than us, the unpredictable, problems, offers ontological security of some sort in dialectical relationship with society (and people) o A stable mental state derived from a sense of continuity and order in events What are the three main components of religions? Meaning system Belonging system Structural system What are the social functions of religion? Social cohesion (working together, cooperation) (a greater sense of community builds), provides guidelines in beliefs and values, provides friendships Gives meaning, makes sense of life, death, events that seem bigger than us, the unpredictable, problems, offers ontological security of some sort in dialectical relationship with society (and people) Looking at more than just avoiding hell Like the latent functions of religion Know the definition of new religious movements and some examples. They can last a little bit longer (Christianity has lasted quite a long time) New religious movements (NRMs) like sects, are protest or splinter groups
o But unlike sects, the NRMs survive for several generations, become established, and gain some legitimacy, they become new religions in the society rather than new denominations of the existing faith o Cult was once the common term for this kind of movement, but this has become unclear and often negative o Founded on a new revelation (or insight) or on a radical reinterpretation of an old teaching o Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam all began as NRMs Know how our constructions of gender influence roles and status within the institution of religion and how religious ideas of gender are reinforced by and feed into cultural constructions of gender Say there should be equal treatment but there isn't Women volunteer the most, but they are not granted actual official positions Because of this, it is built into the religion that women cannot have these positions Ideologically, woman are considered inferior (woman was created from man) it's an unequal situation Know the definition and examples of myth, ritual, and symbol. Myth stories embodying ideas about the world and transmitting values o Not implying that the story is untrue o A myth may relate historical incidents that actually occurred, it may involve fictional events, or it may communicate abstract ideas such as reincarnation o Myths are always true in some deeper metaphorical sense Ritual group activities in which myths are reinforced with music, dancing, kneeling, praying, chanting, storytelling, and other symbolic acts o Ex: praying 5 times a day while facing Mecca Symbol human creations such as language and gestures that are used to represent objects or actions o They carry specific meaning for members of a culture Know what theocracy, state religion, and separation of church and state would look like in a society (description of each). Theocracy religion in which religious leaders rule society in accordance with God's presumed wishes o A whole state system based off of a religion State religion has some autonomy but receives support from tax money o Other religions can live there o Ex: Sweden, Britain, and Italy Links between Religion and the State
Know the definition and examples of Durkheim's concepts of the sacred and the profane including it's applicability to almost anything. Sacred Babe Ruth's bat was just a bat until he hits so many homeruns becomes something special and extraordinary Sacred extraordinary, inspires awe, mystery and reverence o Ex: Babe Ruth's bat Profane the ordinary and the irreverent o Ex: the ordinary bat Rituals govern behavior in the presence of sacred, transference between states, and/or achieving an acceptable state of being o Purpose of ritual is to evoke particular ideas, sentiments, emotions that have people feel connected and a part of something larger than themselves Provide common meanings and sense of belonging group connections Durkheim said that sacred and profane things are the base of religions ideas of what things are special and what aren't Know the definition of secularization and the arguments for why it may or may not be a pervasive global trend. Secularization a movement away from the supernatural and sacred in favor of logic and empirical evidence o Refers to the diminishing influence and role of religion in everyday life Instead of religion being the dominant institution, it is but one o Acts differently on different levels of analysis o There is a general trend toward secularization, but religion is still very important at the micro-level and has numerous macro-level consequences o The global level is almost totally secular o Not really a universalizing force other religions/countries have not secularized that way we have in America Know the definition and functions of civil religion. Civil religion set of beliefs, symbols, and rituals that pervade many aspects of secular life and institutions o Involves a shared public faith in the nation and what the nation stands for o They endorse what the nation stands for
o Institutionalized set of beliefs about a nation's past, present, and future with corresponding set of rituals that take on a sacred quality and elicit feelings of patriotism o Most notable during times of crisis, war, and national holidays o Lacks the structural system of organized religion in industrial societies, but it is often supported by various types of patriotic groups o Civil religion tends to strengthen the sense of belonging of all citizen as members of that society Know the connection between religion and the development of capitalist economies in the west and the connections between economic conditions and religious trends. Civil religion forges ties between religion and a nation's needs for political interests o Moral justification for policy: manifest destiny, war on terror... o In God We Trust (Civil War)/One Nation Under God (50s Cold War) o Call for social change: Anti-apartheid, civil rights movement, social justice, sanctuary movement, peace movement... Max Weber Protestantism and capitalism: o Predestination o The calling o Self denial and delayed gratification o Individualism Religion is a big business in the United States When the economy is bad, religions arise that predict a swift end to the world Text chapter 14 Know the claims and limitations of Malthusian Theory-especially know the definition of concepts like positive checks. Malthusian theory humans are driven to reproduce so population will increase exponentially unless checks are imposed o Since population increases geometrically but food supplies only increase arithmetically, crises will result o Positive checks on population wars, diseases, food, shortages and famines Saying these need to happen to keep population level with food production Positive checks to him were things that would kill off parts of the population, which would keep the population stable o Malthus suggested delayed marriage and abstinence until one could afford a family o First to introduce theory of overpopulation (too many people for world) which will cause us to run out of food, etc Criticisms: o New agricultural techniques allowed food production to increase geometrically o Malthus failed to recognize contraception as a possible check on population growth o Poverty does not inevitably result from population growth o Malthus ignored the consumption patterns of industrialized nations and colonization practices and just blamed the scarcity of resources on the rapid population growth of poor developing nations
Know the stages and criticisms of demographic transition theory. Demographic transition theory comparing countries' stages of economic development with trends in birth and death--used to determine how changes in economic structure and movement from agricultural areas to urban areas can have an impact on population size o Stage 1 high birth and death rates war, famine, disease, epidemic, high infant mortality (Malthus' positive checks) Characteristic of Western Europe and US before 1850 Pre-industrial, non-urban societies Then advances in sanitation and food production shifted this in the west o Stage 2 transition includes decline in death with continued high birth rates Characteristic of developing/less developed nations currently Advances in sanitation o Stage 3 low death and declining birth rates Older people now account for majority of deaths instead of children and women of childbearing age Characteristic of industrial and post-industrial societies with small nuclear families Fails to consider: o age at marriage o contraceptive availability o a country's land and resources o economy, religious beliefs, and political philosophies Criticism: o Assumes that modernization between stages 2 and 3 result in rational choice about family size The Demographic Transition (graph) What aspects of social services and infrastructure are impacted by population? As population grows, these get more stressed Their ability to serve everyone equally will not happen Desperately trying to keep up with road system (infrastructure) Unable to accommodate everyone Role of gender and education in population growth and decline Less education women have, the more kids they tend to have More we educate women, we see immediate change in how many children they have and how soon they are presented with knowledge and opportunities for further schooling and jobs Know the definition and importance of population momentum in planning for the future needs of a society. Population momentum the continued growth of a population even if birth rates per couple drop because the number of women of child bearing age is still very high o Population is going to continue to grow, even if we lower fertility rates o We won't be able to immediately lower the population it will continue growing, and we need to recognize that The continued growth of population even if the birth rate drops, just because the population of child bearing aged women is high
Know how the availability (or lack) of contraception in developing countries contradicts some of the assumptions of rationality and choice in some perspectives on population growth. We assume they want it, we assume they know how to use it, we assume that once it's brought in they will have access to it Countries that have population problems don't think it will solve their problems Certain religious views won't allow it Even if they want it, they don't necessarily have access to it Malthus saw positive checks as disease, war, and famine didn't really even consider contraceptive, just said don't have sex (abstinence) population resources are going to keep the population in check Women's Education and Family Size in Selected Countries, 1990s
Know the definition of and examples of push and pull factors in migration. Push-Pull Theory points out that some people are pushed from their original locations by wars, plagues, famine, political or religious conflicts, economic crises, or other factors, and pulled to new locations by economic opportunities or political and religious tolerance o Most people do not leave a location unless they have been either forced out, or they have a viable alternative in the new location and the benefits of moving outweigh the costs o In some cases, the push factors are especially strong; in others, the pull factors dominate Know the characteristics and examples of Tonnies' concepts of gemienschaft and Gesellschaft. Gemienschaft German term meaning small traditional community: o Family, friendship, relations to the land, common values, traditions, and experiences are key elements of Gemeinschaft Gesellschaft German term meaning large impersonal urban areas o A product of urban industrial society o Characterized by formal relations, contracts, laws, and economies built on money Tonnies saw social life as an evolution from family units to rural villages, towns, cities, nations, and finally cosmopolitan urban life What are the trends that will impact urban planning in the future (and my limits to these trends from lecture)? Continued urbanization:
o Megacities cities with over 10 million people o Megalopolis a spatial merging of two or more cities along major transportation corridors o Gentrification members of the middle and upper class, mostly young white professionals, buying and renovating rundown properties in central-city neighborhoods o Limits water, food, and power supply, waste disposal Urban life continues to be impacted by conflicts between cultural and political groups: o Indigenous cities traditional cities that usually predate European ones centers usually include a bazaar and religious and government buildings o Dual cities modern westernized colonial central cities located next to a traditional, indigenous cities o Limits segregation, relocation, gated communities, ethnic enclaves Economies based on brainwork rather than physical labor o Creativity, work from any location through technology, service and tertiary sector o Limits stuff has to be moved, built, fixed... Information and transportation technologies allow people to connect across the globe and reduce commitment to particular geographical areas o Limits post peak oil makes travel expensive International boundaries will diminish in importance o Limits War on Terror, UN Continued McDonaldization creation of a consumer world dominated by major Western food, music, fashion, and entertainment o Limits backlash, western culture becoming more multicultural Know Simmel's characteristics and explanation of city dwellers' typical responses to living in an impersonal urban environment. Simmel argued that two factors--the intensity and stimulation of city life and the market effects on urban relations--cause people to have different attitudes, beliefs, and values from those in rural areas o City dwellers have no choice but to be somewhat insensitive, avoid intense relationships, and keep social relationships superficial to protect their privacy o He did not feel this was necessarily negative cities free people from the social constraints of close relationships in small towns Know the definition of megacities, indigenous cities, dual cities, and gentrification and the implications of this for environmental issues, planning, and stratification/inequality. Megacities cities with over 10 million people Indigenous cities traditional cities that usually predate European ones centers usually include a bazaar and religious and government buildings Dual cities modern westernized colonial central cities located next to a traditional, indigenous cities Gentrification members of the middle and upper class, mostly young white professionals, buying and renovating rundown properties in central-city neighborhoods Limits water, food, and power supply, waste disposal Will cause segregation, relocation, gated communities, ethnic enclaves Know Berrelson and Samuel's fertility thresholds (especially the role of the status of women in population growth).
Berrelson and Samuel two demographers speaking about how we move from stage 2 to stage 3 how any given population will have less children Berrelson and Samuel's fertility thresholds: o Less than 50% of labor force employed in agriculture = less economic value of children o School enrollment (50% of those between 5-19) reduces gender inequality, traditional holds, and infant mortality More educated women results in stronger choice in what they want (i.e. jobs and children) and more knowledge about baby health o Life expectancy of at least 60 years (correlated with low infant mortality) o 80% of women between 15-19 unmarried (when correlated with protected or delayed sexual activity) If marriage is delayed, there is all that time there that they are not having children Usually 15-19 unmarried because they're in some education What are the implications of current population trends for life on spaceship Earth? How many people at what lifestyle/culture can the planet sustain? How will climate change impact culture and population? Post-peak Oil Worl-2040? Nation State versus Bio-region? We kind of forget that we do live on a finite planet when we run out of resources, where will we go? Know the implications of environmental issues for stratification and the definition and examples of environmental racism. Environmental Issues and Stratification: o Environmental discrimination/racism the tendency to heap environmental dangers on the poor, minorities, and disadvantaged within a national or global society NIMBY movements (Not In My Back Yard) Multinational corporate policies Mining for precious gems, materials used in telecom and computer technology, and heavy metals Recycling of outdated coal plants and industrial equipment that doesn't meet environmental standards to developing nations Text chapter 15 Know the effective strategies for implementing social change. Social change defined as variations or alterations over time in the behavior patterns, culture (including norms and values), and structure of society o Some is controllable, some is not o Inevitable and ubiquitous (far ranging/everywhere) o Can be rapid or gradual and evolutionary o Change at one level often caused by changes at other levels Change at the individual level Change at the community level Change at the institutional level
Change at the societal level Change in global systems Change is triggered by: o Strain interior pressures for change Ex: conflicting goals or belief systems o Stress exterior pressures for change Ex: the natural environment, population dynamics, leaders or dominant individuals, technology, the social environment, or major historical events Change is brought about by: o Discovery viewing something that has always been present in a different way o Invention combining existing parts, materials, or ideas to form new ones o Diffusion the spread of an invention or discovery from one place to another o Role of science and technology Know the definition of state terrorism. State terrorism terroristic tactics enacted by a government either against its own people or another group Know how each of the three theoretical perspectives explains social change and social movements, what they focus on and the types of questions they ask. Symbolic interactionism humans actively construct meaning o Re-definitions of situations can be powerful impetuses for change Micro-level changes: o Individuals with enough wealth, expertise, power by force, or charisma can influence change o Organizations can use numerous strategies for change, including appealing to individuals' values, removing uncooperative individuals from the organization, etc Cyclical theories societies go through cycles similar to the rise and fall of civilizations or the human life cycle o Toynbee societies move from passive to active in response to stresses; a stress will mobilize a society but the activism slows as the change becomes institutionalized Functionalist theories societies are basically stable (held together by shared norms) and composed of interdependent parts that make society function smoothly o Slow change may occur as societies become more complex, but rapid change is potentially destabilizing and is dysfunctional Conflict theories change is inevitable o Conflict between those in power and the oppressed will lead to healthy changes that are useful for society Know what the IMF is and what its policies have resulted in. IMF International Monetary Fund originally created to help countries that were colonized earlier and help them with funds, but in order to get the funds they have to agree to a structural adjustment program (these are the certain things you need to do because we are giving you this money such as lowering minimum wage certain stipulations the countries had to follow) really not helping them at all, but it's keeping them there
Know the definition of collective behavior, crowd behavior, and mass behavior including which type best describes riots, protests, rumors, fads, and panics (so you need to know the definition and examples of those concepts as well). Collective behavior actions that are spontaneous, unstructured, disorganized, and often violate norms o Arises when people are trying to cope with stressful situations and unclear or uncertain conditions o Ex: Hurricane Katrina, 9/11 Crowd behaviors forms of collective behavior in which a crowd acts, at least temporarily, as a unified body o Ex: concerts (heavy metal concerts) Mass behaviors individual people communicate or respond in a similar manner to ambiguous or uncertain situations, often based on common information from the news or on the internet o Ex: mass emails (mass forwards) Know the basic ideas of minimax strategy theory and emergent norm theory for explaining collective behavior. The minimax strategy individuals try to minimize costs and maximize gains o Based on rational choice Emergent norm theory collective behaviors often take place in unusual situations where norms break down and new definitions of acceptable behavior emerge What are the characteristics of social movements, the conditions under which they arise, the types of movements (and their characteristics), and the stages of social movements. Social movements consciously organized attempts outside of established institutional mechanisms to enhance or resist change through group action o Focused on a common interest o Most common in industrial or post-industrial societies where there are diverse groups that advocate for the own goals and interests o Usually begun by individuals outside the power structure o Often stimulate counter movements (social movements against the goals of the original movement) Conditions for social movements: o A preexisting communication network that allows dissatisfied or alienate people to share their thoughts o The people in the network must share basic values (and often share similar social statuses or positions) o A strain or precipitating event occurs o Effective leadership emerges o The people in the movement develop a sense that they can successfully change the system Types of social movements: o Expressive focus on changing individuals and saving people from corrupt lifestyles o Social reform seek to change some aspect of society, but members generally support the society as a whole
o Revolutionary attempt to transform society, to bring about a total change in a society by overthrowing existing power structures and replacing them with new ones o Resistance or regressive see change as a threat to societal values, so try to protect an existing system or part of a system o Global transnational focus on large-scale, global issues Stages of social movements: o Preliminary stage the context for the movement is set o Popularization stage individuals coalesce their efforts, define their goals and strategies, develop recruitment tactics, and identify leaders; enters the public arena o Institutionalize institutionalized into a formal organization o Fragmentation and demise the final stage the organization breaks apart Know the relationship of environmental changes to social change and the books explanation for many nations' reluctance to take definitive actions to protect the global environment. Change can be prompted by stress An environmental change will induce stress, which might cause a change Know my term for social change that is conscious and intentional (transformation). Social Transformation: o Things to keep in mind: Today's solutions are tomorrow's problems Butterfly effect otherwise known as global interdependence Bridging the gap between our ideals and the real Everything is choice and some choices are easier/more likely than others In every moment our every action and interaction maintains or transforms the world we live in Communication What are stimulators of social change? Strain, interior pressures for change, stress, exterior pressures for change What are the theories discussed in lecture to explain social change? Symbolic interactionism Cyclical theories Functionalist theories Conflict theories o See above What are the tools for transformation I discussed in lecture? Comprehensive Vision of and inquiry into the World (social, physical, meta-physical) o Ability to see through different lenses o Critical thinking and evaluation tools o Constantly evolving and growing knowledge base o Reflexive self-knowledge o Clarity of core values o All these combined add up to her definition of wisdom o Communication Writing and speaking, listening, self-expression and creativity
Globalization Reading (5ish questions) Know the characteristics of the globalization process and the contradictions of globalization from above, and how these impact the issues we are currently facing across the glove and will face in the future. Characteristics: o Impoverishment o Inequality o Volatility o Degradation of Democracy o Environmental Destruction Know what the IMF and WTO are and what they do, the issues involved, and how they are connected with globalization and the other organizations and agreements discussed in that chapter. IMF International Monetary Fund originally created to help countries that were colonized earlier and help them with funds, but in order to get the funds they have to agree to a structural adjustment program (these are the certain things you need to do because we are giving you this money such as lowering minimum wage certain stipulations the countries had to follow) really not helping them at all, but it's keeping them there WTO World Trade Organization controls a lot of the global trading system and makes up the rules and usually companies that get pissed off, go to WTO to bitch at functions as a sort of international court for adjudicating trade disputes Based upon the sweat behind the shirt diagram: what does a made in tag on a garment really mean? Not much with supplies chains that travel the globe Union workers make more than non-union workers How might this process and cost be impacted by increasing transportation costs (rising fuel prices or declining availability)? Argue for sameness Suggests that we are not moving towards a cultural rainbow that reflects the diversity of the world existing cultures Rather, we are witnessing the rise of an increasing homogenized popular culture What is the evidence that global culture is moving toward sameness or difference? Pessimists favor sameness (we're not moving towards a diverse culture, rather the rise of a typical same popular culture (dominant)) What is the Kyoto protocol, what is it designed to do? Kyoto Protocol represents humanities best chance for combating global warming and vow to make it work Cut down global warming Why is international cooperation on even such a pressing issue difficult? Nobody can agree on problem/cause What is required if the issue of global warming is to be addressed adequately by the US and internationally? Carbon dioxide control/limits, synchronized traffic lights, raise fuel costs, global awareness
Justice-"I have a Dream" reading (2 questions) What is his version of a utopian society (what changes does he want to see)? More openness about sex (parents talk with their children about it, boys and girls will learn about the joys and responsibility of sex, etc) More equality with genders (same opportunities, no more threat of rape, no more threat of teasing, etc) Stereotypes will be broken (no more pink for girls, blue for boys; women work together with men, etc) What is required to achieve this new society? To achieve this society, what is required is... openness, acceptance, equality, sociological perspective How does his poem illustrate the American Ideals we have spoken of throughout the semester, and evoke a practical application of social constructionism and the claim that you and I are responsible for the world we live in. life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness Poem is portraying a perfect world where everyone is happy and living their lives We are responsible for the world we live in because we are the reason why gays are ridiculed and rejected, why sex is not talked about, why women are stereotyped, etc Recitation Material (5 questions) What does the creationism/evolution debate illustrate about the purposes of and connections between religion and education in US society? Can see the adversary relationship (obvious) Religion tends to want to be its own education Who God is in schools Evolution v. Creationism in science classes really is about shifting world views and political struggle about who's values matter Evolution theory of life development on planet was widely accepted in biology after WWI What are the possibilities and limitations of natural capitalism? Natural capitalism change in book-keeping adds value that natural systems contribute to the bottom line Possibilities: o Creating a better social world using less CO2 Limitations: o Economy depends on human action and behavior o Projects forward o Relies on ideas of high corporation o Neither lies fair model What are the optimistic and pessimistic perspectives on capitalism and sustainability? It's giving people jobs in other companies; global economy (optimistic) Using resources a lot faster than we are producing them (pessimistic) Elimination of individuality (pessimistic) Countries are lowering their environmental standards (pessimistic) Capitalism rewards efficiency; natural capitalism is more efficient (optimistic)
More technology Natural capitalism radical processes of efficiency changes, increased valuation of raw materials over labor and change in policy that encourages innovation Sustainability possibilities that will arise from the birth of a new type of industrialism Know the concept of race to the bottom and how that is related to globalization, capitalization, and sustainability. Countries are forced to cut labor, social, and environmental costs to attract mobile capital due to globalization's destructive competition Know the types and stages of social movements and the conditions under which they occur. See above