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CourseThemes Americasloveaffairwithindividualliberalism Ruggedindividualism:deterministicandindividualisticviewthatmen makethemselves II. Problematicattitudetowardgovernment Negativeandantistatist III. Ambivalenceabouthumanrights Forrightsofpeoplealreadyhere,difficultyingainingcitizenshipand obtainingvotingrights IV. UniquenessofAmericanpoliticalthought V. Americansystemisfoundedorsetup;notevolvedfromcenturiesofthought Foundationaldocumentshaveastrangleholdoverpoliticalthought VI. ImpactofAmericanegalitarianism Radicalequalitycreatessuspicionsofelitismandantiintellectualism VII. Uniquenessoffederalsystem Centralgovernmentwithautonomousstates VIII. Importanceofsocialism Idealofequalitytrumpssocialistpolicieseventhroughwidespreaddenial ofrightsandrampantracism TheLockeanLegacy I. LockeandtheFoundingFathers LockesphilosophyprovidedtheformativetextforAmericanthought o Lockeexpoundsonimpartialityingovernment: Itisthedutyofthecivilmagistrate,bytheimpartial executionofequallaws,tosecureuntoallthepeoplein general,andtoeveryoneoneofhissubjectsinparticular thejustpossessionofthesethingsbelongingtothislife Iaffirmthatthemagistratespowerextendsnottothe establishingofanyarticlesoffaith,orformofworship,by theforceofhislaws Originsoflife,liberty,propertyrights,andthepursuitofhappinessin earlycolonialtextsleanheavilyonLockeantexts(AdamscitesMr.
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Lockasthesourceofnaturalrights) o SamAdams AmongtheNaturalRightsoftheColonistsaretheseFirst: aRighttoLife;SecondlytoLiberty;thirdlytoProperty; togetherwiththeRighttosupportanddefendtheminthe bestmannertheycan AllMenhaveaRighttoremaininaStateofNatureas longastheyplease:AndincaseofintolerableOppression, CivilorReligious,toleavetheSocietytheybelongto,and enterintoanother Lockestheoriesofnaturalrightsandconsentwerewidelyheralded, thoughitwashissocialtheoryhisideasaboutworkthatemergedas thecornerstonefortheAmericanstructure Rights,ConsentandLimitedGovernment LockesTreatisesonGovernment o Sacrednessandprotectionofrightsisbasisforgovernment o Inthestateofnature,rightsareonlysecuredviaasocial contract o Limitedconceptionenvisionsgovernmentasanecessaryevil onlyfunctionstoprotectrights(goodandhealthbenot injured) SeparationofChurchandState Manifestationoflimitedgovernmentandindividualautonomy o JohnLocke [Thestate]seemstometobeasocietyofmenconstituted onlyfortheprocuring,preserving,andadvancingtheirown civilinterests o ThomasJefferson Thestateexceedsitslimitedpurviewwhenitinvolvesitself inreligion;offensiveindividualactionsareonlythose injurioustoothersifmyneighborbreaksmylegor stealsmypurse Propertyandphilosophyofwork o Oneextendshimselfthroughwhathehas,soproperty,laborand workareproductsofmoralbehaviorandsymbolsofvirtue Republicanismvs.liberalism o Republicanismemphasizesthecommunity,andconceivesof individualrightsassubordinatetothecommongood
TheParadoxicalPoliticsofPuritanism I. History SecondgreatschoolofAmericanthought,alongwithLocke,which professedadirectconnectionbetweentheparishionerandGod,andcut backtheexcessesofCatholicism II. ThePersonalCovenantandLiberty PersonalcovenantswerebetweenindividualPuritansandGod o JohnWinthrop Thecovenantbetweenyouandusistheoathyouhave takenofus,whichistothispurpose,thatweshallgovern youandjudgeyourcausesbytherulesofGodslawsand ourown,accordingtoourbestskill Puritansdefinedlibertyasanobediencetodivineauthority o JohnWinthrop Thislibertyistheproperendandobjectofauthority,and cannotsubsistwithoutit;anditisalibertytothatonly whichisgood,just,andhonest III. CommunalCovenant ThePuritans,demonstratinganincrediblehubris,believedthattheywere divinelychosentocreateanexemplarysociety o JohnWinthrop Forwemustconsiderthatweshallbeasacityuponahill, theeyesofallpeopleareuponus;sothatifweshalldeal falselywithoutgodinthisworkwehaveundertakenand socausehimtowithdrawhispresenthelpfromus,weshall bemadeastoryandabywordthroughtheworld IV. TheChristianCommonwealth ThePuritanstatediametricallyopposedtheLockeanconception,inthat thestatenotonlyinterferedininjuriousindividualbehavior,butitalso assumedapositivepurposeinindividualconduct V. Puritancommunalismandrepublicanism Inemphasizingthecommunityovertheindividual,Puritanismadoptedthe republican,communaldogma,eventuatinginoneoftwoendstates: (1) Repressivetotalitarianrule,inwhichcontrolisinescapableand infractionsaremetwithexcommunication (2) Benigncommunalparadise,inWinthropsModelofChristian Charity:
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ThatwhichthemostintheirChurchesmaintainasatruth inprofessiononly,wemustbringintofamiliarandconstant practice,asinthisdutyoflovewemustlovebrotherly withoutdissimulation,wemustloveoneanotherwitha pureheartferventlywemustbearoneanothersburdens PuritanLockeanism ThereareaspectsofPuritanismthatarecompatiblewithLockeanthought (1) VoluntaryentrancelikeLockessocialcontract,Winthrop heldthatpuritansvoluntaryconsentedtopuritanicalrule Itisyourselveswhohavecalledustothisoffice,and beingcalledbyyou,wehaveourauthorityfromGod (2) Communaldemocracypuritanlawswereenactedwiththe consentofthecitizenry,representingapurerformofdemocracy thananyothergovernmentintheworldatthattime (3) ChurchespuritanspracticedselfgovernmentinChurch, eliminatingpriests,andreplacingthemwithministers Still,muchofthepuritanideologywasincompatiblewithdemocratic processesonlychurchmemberscouldvote,andwomen,Indiansand servantswerealldenigratedbythecommunity FiguressuchasAnneHutchinsonandRogerWilliams defiedthePuritansandadvocatedamoreLockean approach
Puritanism,Work,andtheMoralMeaningofAmerica I. TheCallingandtheProtestantEthic Puritansheldthateachpersonhadacallingadivinedirectiontoward acertainvocation o LazinessorslothfulnesswerethusseenasaffrontstoGod,andthe underclasswasridiculedforitspoverty o Thepursuitofwealththroughworkandlaborbecameameansof servingGod II. BetteringOnesConditionandtheRaceofLife Afundamentalbeliefthatanyonecanbetterhisconditionthroughhard workhascausedgenerationsofAmericanstostriveforprosperity o AdamSmith Theprinciplewhichpromptstosave,isthedesireof betteringourcondition ThroughoutAmericanpoliticalthought,themetaphoroftheraceoflifeis usedtojustifysomepeoplewinningtherace,aslongaseachhasanequal
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opportunitytocompete BenFranklinandtheMoralMeaningofAmerica FranklincametoembodythePuritanthemesofhardworkandbettering onesconditioninsecularterms o Franklincarefullyoutlinedhisprotestantethic: ItwasaboutthistimeIconceivedtheboldandarduous projectofarrivingatmoralperfection.Iwishedtolive withoutcommittinganyfaultatanytime;Iwouldconquer allthateithernaturalinclination,custom,orcompany mightleadmeinto
ThePoliticalTheoryoftheRevolution I. LoyalistOppositiontotheRevolution SomereligiousfiguressuchasJonathanBoucherpreachedthatthe LockeanrevolutionaryprincipleswereatoddswithChristianity,which heldthattheBritishempirewasaninstrumentofGod RepublicantheoristsclaimthattheRevolutionresultedfromBritish infringementsonselfgovernment,andnotfromanyLockeanideas II. ThomasPaineandCommonSense PainesRevolutionarypamphletinfusedcolonialistswithasenseof purpose o PainewritesofanAmericanmetahistoricalobligation: Thesunnevershinedonacauseofgreaterworth.Tis nottheaffairofacity,acountry,aprovince,orakingdom, butofacontinent o ForPaine,Americasgreatnessoriginatedinitsradical egalitarianism,wherethepoorarenotoppressed,thericharenot privileged o Painealsodistinguishedbetweensocietyandgovernment, espousingalimitedviewofauthority: Societyisproducedbyourwants,andgovernmentbyour wickedness;theformerpromotesourhappinesspositively byunitingouraffections,thelatternegativelyby restrainingourvices III. TheRevolutionsDemocratizationofAmerica Revolutionarythoughtwasmarkedbyaparadox:despitethewarsradical democraticunderpinnings,postRevolutionaryrulewastemperedbyfears ofexcessdemocracy
o TheArticlesofConfederationproducedaweakfederal governmentwithnochiefexecutive,andthemajorityofpower concentratedintheseveralstates TheRevolutionwasalsomarkedbythestrugglebetweenhomerule thewarofindependencefromEnglandandruleathome:whoamong thecolonistswouldcometorulethenewterritory(CarlBecker) o Initiallytheelites,mobilizedthemassesforthehomerule movement,butthemassesturnedagainsttheelitesforruleat home,astheywereturnedawayfromthelegislatures o ViolencemostnotablyinShaysRebellionandinlynchings resultedfromtheseconflicts TheArticlesofConfederation,whileweakanddecentralized,represented themostdemocraticperiodofAmericanhistory PoliticalTheoryoftheConstitution I. Governmentvs.Liberty MadisonandHamiltonadvocatedforastrong,centralgovernment,while PatrickHenryandRichardHenryLeeequatedthePhiladelphiaconvention withKingGeorgestyranny II. TheConstitutionalAchievement TheConstitutioncreatedchecksandbalancesoverlegislativesupremacy andafederalpowerthattrumpedstateauthority III. ThePresidency Thepresidencywasvestedwithmilitary,legislative,andexecutivepower promptingsome,likeEdmundRandolph,tocriticizetheofficeasthe fetusofmonarchy IV. JamesMadisonArchitectoftheConstitution MadisonadvocatedtheLockeannegativerolefornationalgovernment, envisioningthefederalgovernmentasanumpire o MadisoninstitutionalizedtheLockeanconceptoflimited governmentinastrongbutdividedgovernmenttoprotectagainst factions,asarticulatedinTheFederalistNo.10: Complaintsareeverywhereheardfromourmost considerateandvirtuouscitizensthatthepublicgoodis disregardedintheconflictsofrivalparties,andthat measuresaretoooftendecided,notaccordingtotherules ofjusticeandtherightsoftheminorparty,butbythe superiorforceofaninterestedandoverbearingmajority o InTheFederalistNo.10,Madisonarguedforrepresentationso
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thatlegislatorsmightserveasafilterbetweenthepeopleandthe law: Theeffectofthefirstdifferenceis,ontheonehand,to refineandenlargethepublicviews,bypassingthem throughthemediumofachosenbodyofcitizens o InTheFederalistNo.51,Madisonextendshischeckson individualaspirationstojustifychecksandbalancesinthefederal government: Ambitionmustbemadetocounteractambition.The interestofthemanmustbeconnectedwiththe constitutionalrightsinplace o Madisonthusadoptedpessimisticliberalism:aviewthat empowersthegovernment,butchecksagainsthumanambition: Ifmenwereangels,nogovernmentwouldbenecessary. Ifangelsweretogovernmen,neitherexternalnorinternal controlsongovernmentwouldbenecessary.Inframinga governmentwhichistobeadministeredbymenovermen, thegreatdifficultyliesinthis:youmustfirstenablethe governmenttocontrolthegoverned;andinthenextplace obligeittocontrolitself JohnAdamsonClassandSeparationofPowers Adamsadoptedamorecandidviewofclassissues,advocatingthe separationofpowerstoprotectwarringclassfactions o InADefenseoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,Adams elaboratedonprotectionsneededfortherich: Itisagreedthattheendofallgovernmentisthegoodand easeofthepeopleinasecureenjoymentoftheirrights withoutoppression;butitmustberememberedthatthe richarepeopleaswellasthepoor;thattheyhaverightsas wellasothers,thattheyhaveasclearandassacredrightto theirlargepropertyasothershavetotheirswhichis smaller;thatoppressiontothemisaspossibleandas wickedastoothers
Federalistsvs.AntiFederalists I. TheGreatNationalDebate BothFederalistsandtheiropponentsagreedthattheConstitution transferredpowerfromthemanytothe,thoughFederalistsperceivedof
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thenewgovernmentasaneffectivefilter,whileAntiFederalists contendedthatpowerwouldbetoofarremovedfromthepeople,andthat governmentshouldresemble,instead,amirror SuperiorFewvs.CommonMany Generally,Federalistsgainedtheirsupportfromtheeducatedandwealthy elites,whileAntiFederalistsdrewpoliticalpowerfromtheimpoverished andruralclasses ACommercialRepublicvs.aMoralRepublic Federalistsgenerallysupportedacommercialrepublic,inwhichthe Constitutionprotectedpropertyandcompetitiveindividualism,while AntiFederalistsespousedarepublican,preliberalidealofamoral republicimbuedwithcommunitarianrights TheFirestormOverReligion Thetwocompetingvisionscreatedamajorcontroversyintheratification debatesovertheplaceofreligioningovernmentinprevailingover theiradversaries,theFederalistsinstalledaGodlessConstitution TheVote TheConstitutioncameveryclosetobeingdefeated,withnarrowmargins ofratificationinsomestates TheBillofRights Ironically,itwastheAntiFederalistswhotrumpetedadoctrineof individualrights,thoughinitially,theirsupportwasbasedonthefearof politicalelitesstrippingawaymajorityrights TheLegacyof17871788 Today,theAmericanpoliticalclimateistornbetweentheLockeanliberal conceptionofacommercialrepublicandthemoralrepublicadvocatedby AntiFederalists
HamiltonianismandJeffersonianism I. AlexanderHamilton HamiltonwastheleastLockeanofthefoundingfathers,andhisproposals forcompletecentralizationofAmericangovernmentweredefeatedatthe convention o HamiltonsstatistviewsrejectedtheLockeanumpire,and advocatedinsteadacontrollingandinterventioniststate o AsthefirstSecretaryoftheTreasury,Hamiltonfoughtfornational involvementintheeconomy,andpreachedagainstlaissezfaire economics II. ThomasJefferson
JeffersonespousedtheLockeanprinciplesofdemystifyinggovernment, initiatinglimitedrule,andupholdingindividualrights o HisInauguralAddresschampionedtheLockeanideology: Stillonemorethingmore,fellowcitizensawiseand frugalgovernment,whichshallrestrainmenfrominjuring oneanother,whichshallleavethemotherwisefreeto regulatetheirownpursuitsofindustryandimprovement, andshallnottakefromthemouthoflaborthebreadithas earned Inhisagrarianideal,JeffersonmarriedLockeancapitalismtothePuritan glorificationofwork,sothatpeoplemightbeleftalonebythegovernment toimprovethemselvesthroughlaborandenterprise o InTheImportanceofAgriculture,Jeffersonpraisesthefarmers, anddenigratesthemanufacturers: Thosewholaborintheeartharethechosenpeopleof God,ifheeverhadachosenpeople,whosebreastshehas madehispeculiardepositforsubstantialandgenuine virtue o Inapersonalletter,Jeffersonmakesthesamepoint: Ithinkourgovernmentswillremainvirtuousformany centuries;aslongastheyarechieflyagricultural;andthis willbeaslongasthereshallbevacantlandsinanypartof America Jeffersonalsoadoptedaradicalegalitarianviewinopposingtheelitist tendenciesofhiscontemporaries o In1793,JeffersonsplitfromtheFederaliststocreatethe DemocraticRepublicanPartytoopposetheexpansionofnational powersattheexpenseofstateauthority;hewentsofarastopraise ShaysRebellioninapersonalletter: Godforbidweshouldeverbetwentyyearswithoutsucha rebellionThetreeoflibertymustberefreshedfromtime totimewiththebloodofpatriotsandtyrants Jeffersonstronglychampionedstaterights,andworkedtolimitnational power Asanenlightenedthinker,Jeffersonwasopposedtoreligiousinterference, andwaspreoccupiedwithscienceandtechnology o Hisphilosophyrejectedtheglorificationofthepastanditsleaders Jeffersonalsoacceptedtheracisttendenciesofhisday,maintaininga slavepopulationonhisproperty
o JacksondidnotfindIndianstoberaciallyinferior,butsawthemas badLockeansanduncivilized
Jacksonianism:DemocracyandOpportunity I. PolicyandHistory JacksoncalledforassertivegovernmentinhisAmericanSystem nationaleconomicintegrationandnewtransportationsystems JacksonstronglydisputedHamiltonslegacy:bankingandcorporations LikeJefferson,heperceivedanegalitariansociety,inwhichthe acquisitionofwealthwasseenasparamount o JacksonsAmericawascharacterizedbyacquisition,competition andselfimprovement,primarilythroughwork II. PoliticalIdeals Jacksonwasthefirstactivist,visionarypresident o Heheldthatgoverningwasasimpleandeasytaskthatanyman coulddo,andinventedthespoilssystemtorewardhissupporters JacksonalsoheraldedtheUnionabovetheseveralstates,and democratizedthepresidency o InaproclamationtoSouthCarolina,Jacksonspokeoutforthe nationalinterestagainststatenullification: TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,then,formsa government,notaleague;andwhetheritbeformedby compactbetweentheStatesorinanyothermanner,its characteristhesame Jacksonshiftedtheelitismofthefoundingfatherstoaromanticand unabashedpopulism o GeorgeBancroftexplainedthepopulistphilosophy: Ourfreeinstitutionshavereversedthefalseandignoble distinctionsbetweenmen;andrefusingtogratifythepride ofcaste,haveacknowledgedthecommonmindtobethe truematerialforacommonwealth o Jacksonianideologydidnotchampioneveryone,butwhitemale producers;Jacksonstruedoctrineespousedproducerism ProducingPeoplevs.TheMonsterBank o ForJackson,theNationalBankrepresentedarestrictionon economiccompetition,andpreventednewproducersfrom attainingsuccess
o In1832,Jacksonvetoedthebankscharter,acknowledgingthat, thoughinequalityisinevitable,itshouldnotbeunduly strengthened: Distinctionsinsocietywillalwaysexistundereveryjust governmentbutwhenthelawsundertaketoaddtothese naturalandjustadvantagesartificialdistinctions,togrant titles,gratuities,andexclusiveprivileges,tomaketherich richerandthepotentmorepowerful,thehumblemembers ofsocietyhavearighttocomplainoftheinjusticeof theirGovernment o AsexpoundedinhisFarewellAddress,Jacksontargetedbig businessasthemostformidableenemytoequalopportunity: Itisoneoftheseriousevilsofourpresentsystemof bankingthatitenablesoneclassofsocietyandthatby nomeansanumerousonebyitscontroloverthe currency,toactinjuriouslyupontheinterestsofallthe othersandtoexercisemorethanitsjustproportionof influenceinpoliticalaffairs.Theagricultural,the mechanical,andthelaboringclasseshavelittleornoshare inthedirectionofthegreatmoneyedcorporations Jacksonspopulistspiritdidnotextendtoaboriginalpeopleslikethe Bank,NativeAmericanswereseenbyJacksonimpedimentstohis Lockeanmoralcrusade
JacksonianRadicalThought I. JacksonianismandtheWorkingClass Inthe1840s,OrestesBrownsonwroteabitterassaultagainstcapitalism aworkofChristiansocialism o InTheLaboringClasses,Brownsonwritesthatcapitalism cripplestheunderclass,whichcontainstheuncompensated originalproducers,sothatmobilityisimpossible: Theremustbenoclassofourfellowmendoomedtotoil throughlifeasmereworkmenatwages.Ifwagesare tolerateditmustbeonlyundersuchconditionsthatby thetimeheisofaproperagetosettleinlife,heshallhave accumulatedenoughtobeanindependentlaboreronhis owncapital o BrownsansweristoturntoradicalChristianity: Thenextstepinthisworkofelevatingtheworkingclasses
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willbetoresuscitatetheChristianityofChrist JacksonianismandAnarchy HenryDavidThoreauwroteCivilDisobedienceafterhewasjailedfor refusingtopayfederaltaxes o ThoreausantigovernmentattitudepulledideasfromLockean liberalism: Thatgovernmentisbestwhichgovernsnotatall;and whenmenarepreparedforit,thatwillbethekindof governmentwhichtheywillhave o Thoreaualsowroteagainstslavery,encouragingeachindividualto actaloneagainstinjustice: Unjustlawsexist:shallwebecontenttoobeythem,or shallweendeavortoamendthem,andobeythemuntilwe havesucceeded,orshallwetransgressthematonce? Underagovernmentwhichimprisonsanyunjustly,the trueplaceforajustmanisalsoaprison o ThoreauquestionedeveryaspectofAmericanlife,rejectingthe notionofwork,materialism,andeventheLockeanandPuritan foundationsofAmericanthought Thisworldisaplaceofbusiness.Whataninfinitebustle! Itisnothingbutwork,work,work o ThoreauscritiqueisentirelyunAmerican,butitisstillan individualisticpleafornonconformityandnoncommercialism RalphWaldoEmersonalsocalledforlimitedgovernmentandanendto poverty o Emersonadherestoradicalindividualisminhispoliticalwritings: Hencethelessgovernmentwehavethebetter,the fewerlaws,thelessconfidedpower.Theantidotetothis abuseofformalgovernmentistheinfluenceofprivate character,thegrowthoftheIndividual
Slavery,EqualityandRights I. SlaveryandtheAmericanRevolution Bythemiddleofthe19thCentury,abolitionistsbegantopointoutthe contradictionbetweentheAmericanemancipationfromBritainandthe continuedpracticeofslavery o SamuelJohnsonhadspokeofAmericanhypocrisytheloudest yelpsforlibertyformthedriversofNegroes
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o Theparadoxmakessense,however,asitwasthecolonistsown practiceofslaverythathighlightedtheirconditionofoppression bytheBritishmonarchy;ineffect,thecolonistsfearedslavery fromoverseasthatmightmimictheslaveryontheirplantations SlaveryandtheConstitution Though,likeGod,slaveryisnotexplicitlymentionedintheConstitution, NorthernersandSouthernerscompromisedtomakeveiledreferencesto slaveryinthe3/5Compromise,sothatslavesmightbeconsidered partiallyforrepresentationandtaxation Slavery BeforetheCivilWar,anestimated12millionpeoplewereenslavedinthe UnitedStates Thevastmajorityofslaveswereownedbyafewverywealthy slaveholders SlaveryandWomensRights AtleastintheNorth,blacksheldasimilarstatustowomen:neithercould vote,andbothyearnedforgreaterpoliticalrights o ElizabethCadyStantonlinkedthefateofwomentothatofslaves: Theprejudiceagainstcolor,ofwhichwehearsomuch,is nostrongerthanthatagainstsex.Itisproducedbythe samecause,andmanifestedverymuchinthesameway WomendirectlyappropriatedLockesSecondTreatiseandthe DeclarationofIndependencetopointouttheflawsinthefederal governmentstreatmentofwomen;theirargumentrestedonLockean liberalgrounds Abolitionism From18301860,abolitionismwasthefirstgreatorganizedAmerican reformmovementbasedonmoralpassion,andnoteconomics WithafewnotableexceptionsFrederickDouglass,DavidWalke theabolitionistmovementwasledbyeducatedwhitesfromtheNorth Slaverywasgenerallyattackedonthreegrounds o Fromareligiousstandpoint,WilliamChanningandother theologiansarguedthatslaverydeniedthemoralessenceofself Godhadgrantedtoeachhumanbeing o Insecularterms,theoristslikeTheodoreWeldarguedthatslavery violatednaturalhumanrights: Thereisnotamanonearthwhodoesnotbelievethat slaveryisacurse.Humanbeingsmaybeinconsistent,but humannatureistruetoherself
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o FrederickDouglassalsospokeonIndependenceDaytocontrast therightsofslavestothethoseofwhites: ThisFourthofJulyisyours,notmine.Youmayrejoice,I mustmourn.Todragamaninfettersintothegrand illuminatedtempleofliberty,andcalluponhimtojoinyou injoyousanthems,wereinhumanmockeryandsacrilegious irony o Others,suchasHarrietBeecherStowe,wroteagainstthebrutality ofslaveryinfamousworkssuchasUncleTomsCabin WilliamLloydGarrison Garrisonspaper,TheLiberator,ledtheabolitionistchargeagainst slaveholders DavidWalker Walkertriedtoappealdirectlytoblacks,urgingthemtouniteagainst slavery;afterpublishingAnAppealtotheColoredCitizensofthe World,hewaslaterassassinated
TheDefenseofSlavery Beforethe1830s,slaverywasanembarrassmenttotheSouth,butafterthe NatTurnerslaveuprising,inwhich57whiteswerekilled,andthe abolitionistmovementintheNorth,aggressivedefendersofslavery emerged I. Scripture ProponentsofslaveryquotedboththeOldandNewTestamenttosupport theirviews:theapostle,Peter,wrotethatservantsbeobedienttothose whoareyourmasterswithallfear II. TheMudSillTheory AdvocateslikeSenatorJamesHenryHammondarguedthatanyideal socialorderwasstratifiedbyclassdistinctions,andamenialclasswas alwaysneededthemudsillofsociety o ThistheorywasjustifiedinpartthroughreadingsofancientGreek andRomanhistory,inwhichAristotleandotherswroteoftheneed foraslaveclass III. GeorgeFitzhugh FitzhughdevelopedthemostdirectrepudiationofLockeanliberalismin Americanhistory,arguingthatfreesocietymustbereplacedbyslavery throughthenation o FitzhughchallengesAdamSmith,LockeandPuritanthoughtin
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contendingthatequalityengenderscompetition,whichinturn, createschaosandinstability Now,therearenomorehonorsandwealthinproportion tonumbers,inthisgeneration,thanintheonewhich precededit;populationfullykeepspacewiththemeansof subsistence;hence,thosewhobettertheirconditionorrise tohighplacesinsociety,dosogenerallybypullingdown othersorpushingthemfromtheirplaces o FitzhughalsoattacksLockeanvaluesasunethical: Theverysimpleandimprovidentmanrepresentsaclass, thecommondaylaborersTheybearthewholeweightof societyontheirshoulderstheyareatconstantwarwith thoseabovethem,askinghigherwagesbutgettinglower; fortheyarealsoatwarwitheachother,underbiddingtoget employment o InCannibalsAll!,Fitzhughwrotethatslaverywouldbebetterthan freesociety,andridiculedUncleTomsCabin ThenegroslavesoftheSoutharethehappiest,and,in somesense,thefreestpeopleintheworld FitzhughrepresentsareversalofAmericanpoliticalthoughtinits thoroughrejectionofNortherncapitalismandidealizedpictureof Southernslavery JohnC.Calhoun CalhounemergedastheprincipledefenderofslaveryinCongress, envisioningtheSouthasawholesomeandfamilialenvironment o Calhounarguesagainstthetyrannyofthemajorityandthe excessesofgovernment: Butgovernment,althoughintendedtoprotectand preservesociety,hasitselfastrongtendencytodisorder andabuseofitspowers,asallexperienceandalmostevery pageofhistorytestifyAndhencethepowersvestedin themtopreventinjusticeandoppressiononthepartof otherswill,ifleftunguarded,bebythemconvertedinto instrumentstooppresstherestofthecommunity o CalhounalsoextendstheMadisonianargumentofambitionto argueagainstthenumericalmajority: Powercanonlyberesistedbypowerandtendencyby tendency.Thosewhoexercisepowerandthosesubjectto itsexercisetherulersandtheruledstandin
antagonisticrelationstoeachother.Thesameconstitution ofournaturewhichleadsrulerstooppresstheruled regardlessoftheobjectforwhichgovernmentisordained will,withequalstrength,leadtheruledtoresistwhen possessedofthemeansofmakingpeaceableandeffective resistance o Calhounwarnsofanumericalmajority,andinsteadadvocatesa concurrentmajority,whereinterestsareasimportantasvotes LincolnandSlavery I. TheMythicLincoln TheDemocraticmythholdsthatLincolnwasthequintessentialcommon man,embodyingtheidealofselfmadesuccesss TheChristianmythsurroundsLincolninaJesuslikeaura,carryingthe moralburdenofasinfulpeopleinatroubledage II. LincolnsAntiSlaveryViews Lincolnpubliclyattackedslaveryasanofficeholder o InhisfamousdebateswithStephenDouglas,Lincolnridiculed slavery: Ihateitbecauseofthemonstrousinjusticeofslavery itself.Ihateitbecauseitdeprivesourrepublicanexample ofitsjustinfluenceintheworld;enablestheenemiesof freeinstitutionswithplausibilitytotauntusas hypocrites o LincolnalsolinkedslaverytoLockeanideals,arguingthatit underminedindividualismandautonomy: Whenthewhitemangovernshimself,thatisself government;butwhenhegovernshimselfandalsogoverns anotherman,thatismorethanselfgovernmentthatis despotism o LincolnpointedtotheDeclarationofIndependencesprovision thatallmenarecreatedequalasdiscreditingslavery,thoughstill enshriningdifferences: Ithinktheauthorsofthatnotableinstrumentintendedto includeallmen,buttheydidnotintendtodeclareallmen equalinallrespects...Theydefinedwithtolerable distinctness,inwhatrespectstheydidconsiderallmen createdequalequalincertaininalienablerights,among
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whicharelife,liberty,andthepursuitofhappiness o LincolnalsoinvokedGodtocondemntheinstitutionofslavery: Withmalicetowardnone;withcharityforall;with firmnessintheright,asGodgivesustoseetheright,letus striveontofinishtheworkwearein;tobindupthe nationswounds Evenso,LincolnneversoughttoabolishslaveryfromtheSouth o InhisFirstInauguralAddress,Lincolnpledgedtomaintain slavery: Ihavenopurpose,directlyorindirectly,tointerferewith theinstitutionofslaveryintheStateswhereitexists.I believeIhavenolawfulrighttodoso,andIhaveno inclinationtodoso LincolnonRelationoftheRaces Lincolnheldambivalentviewsonrace;whilehedidargueagainst, slavery,hedidnotbelievethatwhitesandblacksshouldmix,andspokeof boundariesbetweenthetworaces o InLincolnseyes,slaves,likewomen,wereentitledtonatural rights,butnotpoliticalrights NowIprotestagainstthatcounterfeitlogicwhich concludesthat,becauseIdonotwantablackwomanfora slaveImustnecessarilywantherforawife.Ineednot respectsshecertainlyisnotmyequal;butinhernatural haveherforeither,Icanjustleaveheralone.Insome right[s]sheismyequal,andtheequalofallothers ExpansionofSlavery LincolnarguedfortheWesternfrontiertobepopulatedonlybypoor whitepeople o Hispolicywasasmuchantiblackasitwasantislavery,fearing thatablackpopulationmightcreateconditionsforslavery: Aseparationoftheracesistheonlyperfectpreventiveof amalgamationbutasanimmediateseparationisimpossible thenextbestthingistokeepthemapartwheretheyarenot alreadytogether.Ifwhiteandblackpeopleneverget togetherinKansas,theywillnevermixbloodinKansas. Thatisatleastoneselfevidenttruth o Lincolnsexpansionpolicyrevealedhisideologyofworkand allowingthepoortobettertheirconditions: Thewholenationisinterestedthatthebestuseshallbe
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madeoftheseterritories.Wewantthemforthehomesof freewhitepeople.Thistheycannotbe,toanyconsiderable extent,ifslaveryshallbeplantedwithinthem.Slavestates areplacesforpoorwhitepeopletoremovefrom;notto removeto.Newfreestatesaretheplacesforpoorpeople togotoandbettertheircondition LincolnsPhilosophyofWork Lincolnstronglyadvocatedfreelaborandcompetition;slaveowners profitedoffotherswork,whilelaborersstrovetobettertheircondition o Lincolnrejectsthemudsilltheory,andinsteadadvocatesfree labor: Theprudent,pennilessbeginnerintheworldlaborsfor wagesawhile,savesasurpluswithwhichtobuytoolsor landforhimself,thenlaborsonhisownaccountanother while,andatlengthhiresanothernewbeginnertohelp him.Thisisfreelaborthejust,andgenerous,and prosperoussystem,whichopensthewayforall o LincolnsaimsintheCivilWarstemmedfromhisphilosophyof bettermentthroughwork: Thisisessentiallyapeoplescontest.Onthesideofthe Unionitisastruggleformaintainingintheworldthatform andsubstanceofgovernmentwhoseleadingobjectisto elevatetheconditionofmantoliftartificialweights fromallshoulders;toclearthepathsoflaudablepursuitfor all;toaffordallanunfetteredstart,andafairchanceinthe raceoflife FromJeffersonsAgrarianideal,toJacksonswaronbigbusiness, LincolnsidealoffreelabordemonstratesacontinuityinAmerican politicalthoughtinwhichslaveryisamoralenemynotbecauseofits brutalpractices,butbecauseitopposesthelaborersequalopportunityto wintheraceoflife
SocialDarwinismandPostCivilWar I. PostCivilWarTransformationofAmerica Between18651915,Americadevelopedintoanurban,industrial, capitalistsociety,withmajorpopulationincreases,risingfactories,and largeinfluxesofimmigrants II. TheAmericanSpiritvs.EconomicRealitiesinAmerica
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HoratioAlger o Algerwroteover200storiesthatpropagatedtheragstoriches myththatanyonecouldbetterhisconditionintheraceoflife Lockeanliberalphilosophyfocusedontheindividualasworkingfor himself,butthenewrealitiesofAmericanlifeprecludedmostfrom achievingsuchsuccess o Rapidindustrializationallowedonlyaselectfewrobberbarons, monopolists,andcaptainsofindustrytorisetoprosperity Forthefirsttime,theprogressive,liberalspiritofJefferson,Jacksonand Lincolnwassuppressed o Theimpoverishedclassbegantorejectlaissezfaireindependence, andturnedtothegovernmentforhelp,whilethewealthyclass rejectedgovernment SocialDarwinism HerbertSpencer o SpencerstheoryofSocialDarwinismtransplantedthebiological principlesofevolutiontohumancompetition,commonlyreferred toasthesurvivalofthefittest SocialDarwinismarguedthatthestrongshouldbypassthe weaktocreateultimateprogress;valuedaboveallwere absolutelaissezfaireprinciples,nogovernmental interferenceintheeconomy,andadeemphasisonsocial reformandaidingthepoor WilliamGrahamSumner o Sumner,theAmericanapostleofSocialDarwinism,arguedthatin theraceoflife,nomanshouldrelyonanother: Thefreemaninafreedemocracy,isfreeonlywhenhe cutoffallthetiesbywhichhemighthavemadeotherspull himup.Hemusttakealltheconsequencesofhisnew status.Heis,inacertainsense,anisolatedman o ForSumner,theidealmanaccumulatedcapitalasaprerequisiteto allotherendeavors: Themanwhohascapitalhassecuredhisfuture,won leisurewhichhecanemployinwinningsecondaryobjects ofnecessityandadvantage,andemancipatedhimselffrom thosethingsinlifewhicharegrossandbelittling.The possessionofcapitalis,therefore,anindispensable prerequisiteofeducational,scientificandmoralgoods o InthetheoryofSocialDarwinism,theinevitablysurvivalofthe
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fittestpitsindividualagainstindividual: Privateproperty,also,whichwehaveseentobeafeature ofsocietyorganizedinaccordancewiththenatural conditionsofthestruggleforexistenceproduces inequalitiesbetweenmen.Thestruggleforexistenceis aimedagainstnature.Itisfromherniggardlyhandthatwe havetowrestthesatisfactionsforourneeds,butour fellowmenareourcompetitorsforthemeagersupply. Competition,therefore,isalawofnature.Natureis entirelyneutral;shesubmitstohimwhomostenergetically andresolutelyassailsher.Shegrantsherrewardstothe fittest,therefore,withoutregardtootherconsiderationsof anykind o Sumnerarguesthatinthequestforprogress,inequalityisa necessaryevil: Letitbeunderstoodthatwecannotgooutsideofthis alternative:liberty,inequality,survivalofthefittest;non liberty,equality,survivaloftheunfittest.Theformer carriessocietyforwardandfavorsallitsbestmembers;the lattercarriessocietydownwardsandfavorsallitsworst members o Thestate,inthisview,shouldnotinterferewithindividual competitionsoastonotcontaminateequalopportunity: Equalitybeforethelaw,however,isoneofthecardinal principlesofcivilliberty,becauseitleaveseachmantorun theraceoflifeforhimselfasbesthecan.Thestatestands neutralbutbenevolent.Itdoesnotundertaketoaidsome andhandicapothersattheoutsetortomakethemstart equally.Suchanotionwouldbelongtothefalseand spurioustheoryofequalitywhichissocialistic AndrewCarnegie Carnegie,aprosperousexemplaroftheragstorichesstory,spread SocialDarwinisminthepostCivilWarperiod o Carnegieworkedagainstunions,andafterarevoltinhisfactoryin 1892,heeffusedtohireunionizedworkers Carnegiealsoheldthatbusinessmenshouldgivewealthbacktosociety, butnottosubordinatecapitalismtothecommunity,onlytoinstalllibraries anduniversitieswherethetalentedamongtheunderclassmightrisetothe top
o EvenCarnegiesphilanthropywaselitist,asitassumedthatthe fittestinsocietyshoulddeterminewhatwouldbebestforsociety
SocialDarwinism,Racism,andImperialism I. AmericanEmpireAbroad Thenewempire o Americanexpansionwasnotjustterritorialormaterial,itwas shapedbyideas: (1) ChristianityleaderslikePresidentMcKinleyarguedthat AmericanexpansioncouldeducateandChristianizenew territories (2) SocialDarwinismtheUnitedStatescametorepresentthe superiorityofAngloSaxons,andSocialDarwinismjustified imperialismabroadsothatthedominantracecouldliberateand savetheuneducatedmasses JosiahStrong o StrongemergedasthestandardbearerofAngloSaxonideals, arguingthatinspreadingChristianityandcivilliberties,America representedthepinnacleinhumanprogress: thetwogreatneedsofmankind,thatallmenmaybe liftedupintothelightofthehighestChristiancivilization, are,first,apure,spiritualChristianity,andsecond,civil libertytheAngloSaxon,asthegreatrepresentativeof thesetwoideasisdivinelycommissionedtobe,ina peculiarsense,hisbrotherskeeper o StrongalsolinksSocialDarwinismtotheAmericanidealofequal opportunity Mr.Darwinisnotonlydisposedtosee,inthesuperior vigorofourpeople,anillustrationofhisfavoritetheoryof naturalselection,butevenintimatesthattheworldshistory thusfarhasbeensimplypreparatoryforourfuture,and tributarytoit o InStrongsfinalvision,theAmericanempirecomestodominate theworldasanembodimentofAngloSaxonsuperiority Thenwillheworldenteruponanewstageofitshistory thefinalcompetitionofraces,forwhichtheAngloSaxonis beingschooled.Longbeforethethousandmillionsare
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here,themightycentrifugaltendency,inherentinthisstock andstrengthenedintheUnitedStates,willassertitself ImperialismatHome:Indians,Blacks,Chinese TeddyRoosevelt o ForRoosevelt,internalandexternalimperialismwenthandin hand,asheusedthesamejustificationtofilltheIndianwaste landashedidtovalidatehiswaragainstSpain o RooseveltcombinedSocialDarwinismwithracismtojustify imperialismabroadandempiricismathome,arguingthat savagerymustyieldtocivilization Americanambivalenceaboutblacks o InthelandmarkdecisionPlessyv.Ferguson(1896),theSupreme CourtlegitimizedJimCrowsegregationintheseparatebutequal doctrine o LauraClayarguedthatwomenshouldhavethevotetoensure whitesupremacy ExclusionofChinese o AdvocatesoftheAngloSaxonideallikeSenatorGeorgearguedin theChineseExclusionAct(1882)againstfurtherimmigration: theexcellence,thestrengthanddurabilityofAnglo Saxonpoliticalinstitutionsresultfromthefactthattheyare bothillogicalandinconsistent.Itis,therefore,nogood reasonwhyweshouldnotrelievethepeopleofthePacific StatesofthegreatevilofChineseimmigrationIprefer, sir,toexposemyselftothechargeofinconsistencyrather thantodisregardtheknownwishesofthewhitepeople TheAntiImmigrationLeague FoundedbyHarvardgraduates,theLeaguesoughttopassaliteracytest forimmigrants,amongothernativistgoals o HenryCabotLodgewastheprincipleadvocateforsuchatest
ThePopulistsandPopulism I. HistoricalContext AftertheCivilWar,businessmenhadcometodominatethecountry,with bothpoliticalpartiesyieldingtotheirdemands Thepopulistssoughttoexpandthemoneysupplyandincreaseinflationto returnwealthtothosewhoearnwagesandowemoney II. CurrencyandConspiracy
Farmersthebaseofthepopulistmovementheldthatbusinesseswere engagedinaconspiracyagainstthemtocontrolgovernmentandsociety o Theyusedthetermuserertoridiculepeoplewholentmoney, whichwasoftenacodewordforJews o Populistssawthemselvesasrealplainpeopleworkingagainst theeliteclasses,promptingthemtoformthePopulistPeoples Party Onthenationalstage,WilliamJenningsBryanranasapopulistcandidate inthepresidentialelectionof1896 o Bryantsfieryrhetoricframedthebattleoverthegoldstandardasa contestbetweenhumblepopulistsandcorporateelites: thiswasastrugglebetweentheidleholdersofidle capitalandthestrugglingmasses,whoproducethewealth andpaythetaxesofthecountry o Bryanarguedagainstthecontinuinggoldstandardandagainst yieldingtoEnglandsfinancialpolicieswithanappealto Christianity(and,perhaps,antiSemitism): Youshallnotpressdownuponthebrowoflaborthis crownofthorns,youshallnotcrucifymankindupona crossofgold AfterBryanlosttheelectiontoMcKinley,thepopulistmovementended o Theremainingpopulistsdemandedmoregovernmentintervention andinvolvementtocreateequalopportunitiesforfarmers
Late19thCenturyResponsestoIndustrialCapitalism I. Intellectualsfromtheleft H.D.Lloyd o LloyddirectlyrepudiatedSocialDarwinism,arguingfor cooperationandsolidarity: Society,ineachpersonofitsmultitudes,mustrecognize thatthesameprinciplesoftheinterestofallbeingtherule ofall,ofthestrongservingtheweak,ofthefirstbeingthe lastmustbeappliedwheremenassociateincommontoil aswherevertheyassociate.Notuntilthencantheforcesbe reversedwhichgeneratethoseobnoxiouspersonsour fittest o Lloydalsoadvocatedforpublicownershipofpublicgoods: theprinciplethattheyhavetherightattheiroptionto
ownandoperatecollectivelyanyorallofthemeansof production,distribution,andexchange.Theyalreadyown some;theyhavetherighttoownasmanymoreasthey want.Thisisthemotherprincipleofthegovernment o Lloydworkedformunicipalization:tonationalizetherailroads,for citiestotakeoverutilities,and,aboveall,tocreateacooperative commonwealth EdwardBellamy o BellamypresentedthefirstdetailedsocialistsolutiontoAmerican issues,advocatingthenationalizationofagenciesandresourcesin hisnovel,LookingBackward: Nothigherwages,buthonorandthehopeofmens gratitude,patriotismandtheinspirationofduty,werethe motiveswhichtheybeforetheirsoldierswhenitwasa questionofdyingforthenation o Bellamypredictedthatlargebusinesseswouldeventuallytakeover smallerones,becomingthefirsttoprophesizethebignessof America: Meanwhile,withoutbeinginthesmallestdegreechecked bytheclamoragainstit,absorptionofbusinessbyever largermonopoliescontinued.IntheUnitedStatesthere wasnotanyopportunitywhateverforindividual enterpriseinanyimportantfieldofindustry,unlessbacked byagreatcapital o BellamysrepudiationofSocialDarwinismandvisioninLooking Backwardwasnotsomuchaclassargument;hisideascentered aroundthenation,andpredictedthatbigbusinesswouldgradually acceptsocialism LesterWard o Wardcriticizedlaissezfairecapitalism,andappropriatedSocial DarwinismtoargueforacooperativesocialmeaningofDarwin o Wardtappedintopopulardislikeforgovernmenttoadvocatea governmentthatrulesintheinterestofsociety: Itsstrongestholdisthewidespreaddistrustof government,anditleavesnostoneunturnedtofanthe flameofmisarchy o Wardarguedthatamisarchyinwhichpeopledistrusttheir governmentshouldbereplacedbyasociocracy,inwhichthe
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Lockeanindividualistspiritisreplacedbysociety: Theindividualhasreignedlongenough.Thedayhas comeforsocietytotakeitsaffairsintoitsownhandsand shapeitsowndestiniesSocietyshouldlearnitsgreat lessonfromhim,shouldfollowthepathhehassoclearly laidoutthatleadstosuccess TradeUnions Theleftistintellectualsnevermanagedtoinspireormergewiththetrade unions,mostlybecausetheunionsclungtotheAmericandream o Unionworkersdidnotwanttoteardowncapitalism,onlyto reformit IntellectualsfromtheRight TheMugwumps,acollectionofeducated,oldmoneygentlemen,fought againstindustrialcapitalismfromtheRight o HenryAdamsglorifiedthepast,andridiculedtheAmerican transformationthroughtechnologyandmachines
Progressivism I. TheProgressiveMood Progressivismsucceededpopulismasapowerfulreformmovement o Progressivismwasnotsomuchanationallyorganizedmovement asitwasacollectionofenthusiasticreformerswhofoughtagainst partymachinesandurbanpovertyatalllevelsofgovernment o Progressivismcontainedanelementofnostalgiaforthepast,and tracedtheircausebacktotheLockeannotionofprivateproperty o Progressivesmainlysoughttocapturegovernmentbackfromthe corruptelite Progressivesalsoembracedthewomenssuffragemovement II. Muckrakers,TheSocialGospel,andCityLife TheMuckrakersusedjournalismandliteraturetopointoutevilsin Americanlife o UptonSinclairsTheJungleexposedtheabhorrentpracticesof meatpackinginChicago o TheProgressiveswerelessinterestedinturningallpowertothe peoplethanthePopulistswereprogressivismaimedtoend corruptioninpolitics o ProgressivescalledforthedirectelectionofSenators,andpassed modernwelfarelaws,provisionsagainstchildlabor,minimum
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wagelaws,andmaximumworkinghourrules TheSocialGospelmovement,aprogressivefactionleadbyprotestant clergymen,rejectedSocialDarwinism o WalterRauschenbuscharguedthatministersmightpreventaclass revolutionbyactingasanarbiterbetweenthepoorandthe wealthy: Aministerminglingwithbothclassescanactasan interpretertoboth.Hecansoftentheincreasingclass hatredoftheworkingclassIftheministrywouldawaken amongthewealthyasenseofsocialcompunctionand moraluneasiness,thatalonemightsaveournationfroma revolutionaryexplosion TeddyRoosevelt TheNewNationalism o Rooseveltspoliticalphilosophycombined20thCentury progressivismwith18thCenturyHamiltonianism,arguingthat democracycannotfulfillitsvisionwithoutconsumingsome individualresponsibilities o RooseveltusedauthoritytoupholdJeffersonianfreedom,and regulatedmonopoliesandtrusts,creatingthepositiviststate:abig governmentthatcontrolsbigcorporations HerbertCroly o CrolyarguesthatthetraditionalAmericandoctrineofequal opportunitygoeshandinhandwithinherentinequalitiescreatedby privilegeandwealth: Thedemocraticprinciplerequiresanequalstartinthe race,whileexpectingatthesametimeanunequalfinish Thechancewhichtheindividualhastocompetewithhis fellowsandtakeaprizeintheraceisvitallyaffectedby materialconditionsoverwhichhehasnocontrol o CrolyfindsthattheJeffersonianconceptionofgovernment limitedprotectionofindividuallibertyisinadequatetodealwith inequalitygeneratedbycapitalism,andadvocatesareturnto Hamiltonianism: TothisextentreallysincerefollowersofJeffersonare obligedtoadmitthesuperiorpoliticalwisdomof Hamiltonsprincipleofnationalresponsibility,and implicitlyabandon[]theircontentionthatthedoctrineof equalrightsisasufficientprincipleofdemocraticpolitical
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actionThenationalpublicinteresthastobeaffirmedby positiveandaggressiveaction o ForCroly,anintrusive,positivistgovernmentthattakes responsibilityforallofitscitizensispreferabletothe Jefferesoniamstate: Thenationhastohaveawillandapolicyaswellasthe individual;andthispolicycannolongerbeconfinedtothe merelynegativetaskofkeepingindividualrightsfrom becominginanywayprivileged o CrolyrejectsSocialDarwinism,andarguesthataresponsible nationwillintervenetoprotectthetrulyfit: TheHamiltonianprincipleofnationalresponsibility recognizestheinevitablyofselection;andsinceitis inevitable,isnotafraidtointerfereonbehalfofthe selectionofthereallyfittest o Crolysprogressiveaimisforthestatetoestablishspecificsocial andmoralendsagovernmentwithastatedpurpose,inwhich individualsworktowardacollectivegoalofpublicservice: Theymustbecome,thatis,ademocracydevotedtothe welfareofthewholepeoplebymeansofaconsciouslabor ofindividualandsocialimprovement;andthatisprecisely thesortofdemocracywhichdemandsforitsrealizationthe aidoftheHamiltoniannationalisticorganizationand principle TogetherwithCroly,Rooseveltemergedasastatistleader,dedicatedto achievingJeffersonianpurposesthroughHamiltonianpolicies o Rooseveltspaternalisticstatesoughttoeliminatetrustsand monopolies,andencouragedthenationalinterestoverbusiness interests;thenationevenovertheselfandthefamily Americanimperialism o RooseveltandCrolyassertedastrongnationalpresenceinthe world,creatingnationalsymbols,andarguingforthe subordinationoftheego Rooseveltsmaxim,Walksoftlyandcarryabigstick wasusedtojustifyimperialism o WhileRooseveltsinternationalpolicywasguidedbymasculine ideals,hisprogressivedomesticstanceembracedfeministleaders likeJaneAdams WoodrowWilsonandProgressivism
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WilsonwaselectedafterTeddyRooseveltsplitvoteswithhisprotg, Taft o WilsontracedhisrootsbacktotheProtestantClergy,and continuedtheprogressiveideal LouisBrandeisandtheNewFreedom o Brandeisarguedthattheeconomyshouldbefragmentedsothat largegovernmentwasnotneededarebuttaltoRoosevelts nationalresponsibilityphilosophy Whoisgoingtobethemasterofthegovernmentofthe UnitedStates?Ithasamasternowthosewhoin combinationcontrolthesemonopolies.Andifthe governmentcontrolledbythemonopoliesinitsturn controlsthemonopolies,thepartnershipisfinally consummated o ProgressivelegislationculminatedintheFederalReserveAct, whichappealedtothecommonmanagainsttheWallStreet bankers AMoralWorld o Wilsonassertedanationalrighttoselfdetermination Science,PragmatismandCivilRepublicanism Withthebirthofsocialscience,progressivesarguedintelligentstudentsof society,andnotbusinesspeople,shouldrunAmerica Thecitymanagermovementadvocatedthatdisinterestedsocialscientists createpublicpolicyinsteadofelectedofficials o ThismovementrepresentsthefinalrejectionofSocialDarwinism, associetyisnolongerrunbynaturallaws,butbyplannersand experts PragmatismemergesasAmericanphilosophy,preachingacommitmentto facts,science,andexperimentation Civilrepublicanismemergedasachallengetoindividualism;areinstated commitmenttothecommunityandtothenation
TheNewDeal I. FDRandtheDepression DepressionerathoughtdominatedtheAmericanlandscapefor50years afterthestockmarketcrash PeoplelostfaithinAmericansociety,andrevolutionaryviolenceemerged ontheleft,asauthoritarianfiguressprungfromtheright FDRpersonifiedDepressionerapoliticalthought
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HerbertHooversSocialThought HooversruggedindividualismchallengedtheEuropeandoctrineof socialismandpaternalism o HooverembracedtheLockeanliberalideasofJacksonand Jefferson,andduringeconomicdownturn,advocatedthatthe governmentdonothing,andallowforpeopletosavethemselves NewDealApproaches TheNewDealdrewelementsfromWilsonsNewFreedomand RooseveltsNewNationalism o TheNewDealbrokefrompopulistandprogressivethoughtin lookingnostalgicallyatthepast,andrejectedanyconspiracy theory,andinsteadsoughttosolvetheproblemsofthe20th Century Keynesianism o Keynesianeconomicsheldthatduringadepression,the governmentmustactthroughfiscalandmonetarypoliciestopump economicactivityintothesystem o Rooseveltsadvisorsacceptedtheseideas,andrejectedHoovers ruggedindividualism PlanningTugwellvs.Lippmann o Tugwell,aprincipaladvisortoRoosevelt,criticizedthelaissez faireprinciplesofSmith,andarguedthatplanningwasnecessary: fundamentalchangesofattitude,newdisciplines, revisedlegalstructures,unaccustomedlimitationson activity,areallnecessaryifwearetoplan.Thisamounts, infact,totheabandonment,finally,oflaissezfaire.It amounts,practically,totheabolitionofbusiness o LippmanrejectsTugwellsplanningphilosophy,arguingthat individualchoicecannotbeconstrainedbygovernmental preference: Thereis,inshort,nowaybywhichtheobjectivesofa plannedeconomycanbemadetodependuponpopular decision.Theymustbeimposedbyanoligarchyofsome sort,andthatoligarchymust,iftheplanistobecarried through,bewithoutresponsibilityinmattersofpolicy SpiritoftheNewDeal DemocraticCoalition o Rooseveltassembledthemostinclusivecoalitioninhistory, bringinginunionmembers,farmersandSoutherners
InstitutionalSpirit o CorporateliberalismtheNewDealcountervailedcompeting powers,tocreateharmonyamongthevariousinterests AntisocialisttheNewDealwasconceivedwithinLockeanliberal terms,thoughsomepeopleneededhelpgettingtothestartingline DemocraticconsumerismNewDealpoliciesstrivedforallAmericansto haveequalaccesstoconsumergoods
PoliticalThoughtofthe60s:StudentsandWomen I. The1950sBackground Duringthe50s,dissentwasseenassubversive,andconformityand complacencywasvaluedaboveall Bythe1960s,traditionalistsandelitistswantedtoreturntothe50s theprimacyoffamilyvalues,andtherepealofblack,gay,studentrights II. StudentPoliticalThought TheNewLeft o WhileoldleftistthinkershadreliedonMarx,thenewleftturnedto MillsandMarcuseandfourconvictionsthattheyoutlined: (1) Theagentofchanceisnottheproletarianclass,butrather,the middleclassstudent (2) TheSovietUnionanditsMarxistdogmadidnotrepresentthe waveofthefuture;itsmodelturnedouttobeoppressive (3) Americansnolongerhadcontrolovertheirdemocracy,andhad lostparticipatorycontrolovertheirlives;insteadcorporate bureaucraciesheldpower (4) Whitemiddleclassstudentmovementswereresponsestothe materialismofthe1960s o StudentsforaDemocraticSociety TheSDSwasnotsocialistorcollectivist,butencouraged participatorydemocracythatdecisionmakingofbasic socialconsequencebecarriedonbypublicgroupings TheSDSencouragedanewkindofman:theparticipatory democrat IncontrastwithVietnamstopdowndecisionmaking,the SDSfocusedonbottomupreform TheSDSgraduallyfellapartby1965becauseoftrust issuesandracialfaultlines TheCounterCultureandSymbolicPolitics
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o Underthenewcounterculture,youngpeoplerejectedthe alienationofsuburbanlife,andmovedtocommunes,preaching sexualliberation,andrejectingtheworkethic o AsYippeeManifestodemonstrates,thismovementdidnotspell outarejectionofpolitics o Counterculturerejectedtechnologyandbusinessinaquestfor directtruth,andtheuniversitycametorepresentallthatwas wrong PoliticalThoughtofWomensMovements Likethestudentmovement,thewomensmovementwasoverwhelmingly leadbywhitemiddleclassactivists TheFeminineMystique o BettyFriedan(cleanshirtsforhusbands,commercials,labor savingdecidesforwomencreatemorework) (1) Repudiationofthe50ssuburbanidealoffemininemystique (2) Womenweredrawntowomensmovementbydiscriminationin theradicalmovementsoftheSDS ConsciousnessRaisingGroups o Smallgroupsofwomeninsuburbancontextsoftenmettogether anddiscussedtheirdiscontent o Thesegroupshelpedcreatewomensselfhelpnetworks LiberalFeminism o BettyFreidanrewrotetheBillofRights,andarguedthatfemale oppressionwasrootedinlegalconstraints o Workedforequaleducation,jobtrainingopportunity,maternity leave RadicalFeminism o Radicalfeministsdidnotsomuchblamethelawastheydidmen, whoseassumptionsofsuperiorityandauthoritysupposedlycreated theproblem o Radicalfeminismtargetsdeepseatedsocialattitudes,whileliberal feminismtargetsthelaw
AfricanAmericanPoliticalThoughtinthe20thCentury I. Separationvs.Integration Strategyofexclusiontheseparatiststrategyurgedblackstoremove themselvesfromwhiteAmerica o Strategyappealedtolesseducated,populistmasses
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Strategyofinclusionstrategyofintegrationandmergingwithin communityofwhiteAmerica o Appealedtowelleducatedelementsofblacksociety Repeatingpatternformarginalizedgroupsbetweenintegrationand separation(Zionists,feminists,etc.) BookerT.WashingtonandW.E.B.DuBois Washington,bornintoslavery,learnedvaluesofagricultureandindustrial training o Washingtonaccepteddisenfranchisementandsecondclass citizenship,andurgedblackstoaccommodatedejuresegregation o Washingtonsbottomupapproachtoblackequalitywaswell receivedbywhiteAmerica o Washingtonsargumentdemonstratedthesignificanceof economicpoweroverpoliticalauthority Bucketquotation DuBoisgrewupasafreemaninMassachusetts,andmadetheelitist argumentthatcollegeeducatedblacksshouldworkforblackequality o DuBoisconceptofthetalentedtenthsaidthatexceptionalblack menshouldleadtheraceawayfromthecontaminationoftherest oftheworld o DuBoisconsistentlychampionedanAmericanblackconnectionto Africa,andattheendofhislife,joinedtheCommunistpartyand movedtoGhana MarcusGarvey,theNAACP,FDRandtheCommunistParty TheCommunists,unlikelaborunions,wereamongthefewwhiteswho spokeoutforblackfreedom FDRrarelyspokeforblackintegration,ashewasafraidthattakingup theircausewouldjeopardizehispoliticalcoalition MarcusGarvey o GarveyfoundedtheUnitedNegroImprovementAssociationinthe 1920s,espousingeconomicseparation o GarveysmostfamouspolicybacktoAfricaadvocateda completeseparation,orescape o Garveyopposedintegrationasaracedestroyingdoctrine CivilRightsinthe50sand60s Bythemiddleofthe20thCentury,100yearshadpassedsincethefirst civilrightsmovement,andseveralfactorscompelledthereawakeningof blackactivism: (1) WorldWarIIawaragainstracismandassumptionsof
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superiorityabroadpointedoutblacksinferiorcondition, andprovidedblackswitheconomicbenefitsduringthe wartimeeconomy,raisingtheirexpectations (2) Brownv.BoardofEducation(1954),andashiftin mobilization,asblacksmovedfromfarmstocities (3) Televisionblackscouldwitnessthesuperiorliving conditionsinwhitehomes (4) DisconnectbetweenColdWarandrealityAmericas insistenceonitsmorallysuperiorstatusasthehomeofthe freeagainsttheSovietUnionhighlightedthelackof freedomforblacks BayardRustinandStokeyCarmichael RustinandCarmichaelwereunsuccessfulcandidatesforBlackleadership Rustinwasagentle,pacifistintellectualwhoengineeredthegreatmarch onWashington o Rustinarguedthatblacksneededwhiteallies,andrecognizedthe potentialofawhitealliance o Rustinnevermaterializedasaleader,inpartbecausehewasa homosexual CarmichaelstartedstudentmovementsintheSouth,supportingablack powerdoctrinethatrejectedalliancewithliberals MartinLutherKing,Love,JusticeandLaw Kingwasacceptedasaleaderbythewhitecommunity Hedefiedlawsonlythroughcivildisobedienceandnonviolentmeasures o KingdrewsupportfromGhandiandJesusChrist MalcolmX:NationalismandSelfDefense MalcolmXsverbalagitationwasnotappreciatedbythewhite community o MalcolmXarguedthatlandshouldbesetasideforblackpeople o Hearguedfordefensiveviolence,notactive: Idontmeangooutandgetviolent;butatthesametime youshouldneverbenonviolentunlessyourunintosome nonviolence.Imnonviolentwiththosewhoarenonviolent withme. Despitetheirmisgivings,blacksmostlyboughtintotheparadigmof Lockeanliberalism o DuBoisusedtheraceoflifemetaphor: Apeoplethushandicappedoughtnottobeaskedtorace withtheworld,butratherallowedtogiveallitstimeand
thoughttoitsownsocialproblems