Portia Mellott Psychology Notes February 2, 2009 Paper due the 4th!!!! Exam next Wednesday- all multiple choice II. What Research Methods Do Psychologists Use? B. Descriptive Methods -Describe relationships and events -Do not manipulate variables -Therefore, can NOT make inferences about cause and effect. -Five types 1. Case studies -Intensive study of one case 2. Naturalistic Observation -Observation of behavior in a naturally occurring situation 3. Surveys -Interviews and questionnaires -Sample must be representative 4. Correlational Studies -Establish relationships between two variables -Because the variables are not controlled, can NOT infer causation 5. Ex <a href="/keyword/post-facto/" >post facto</a> Studies -Describe differences between groups of participants that differ naturally on a variable such as race or gender -Subject variable -Individual differences variable -Variable is NOT manipulated, so these are not experiments III. How Do Psychologists Evaluate Research Findings? A. Using statistics a. Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with classifying and analyzing data b. Psychologists use two types i. Descriptive Statistics 1. Measures of Central Tendency a. Mean i. Average b. Median i. Middle Score c. Mode i. Most common score 2. Measure of Variability a. Range i. Highest minus lowest score b. Standard Deviation (SD) i. How much do the score vary, on average, from the mean? 3. Correlation Coefficients a. Numerical way to describe the relationship between two variables b. Ranges from -1 to 1 c. Positive correlation coefficients indicate that: i. As one variable increases, the other increases. ii. As on variable decreases, the other decreases. d. Negative correlation coefficients indicate that i. As one variable increases, the other decreases e. Closer to -1 or 1, the stronger the relationship f. Closer to 0, the weaker the relationship ii. Inferential Statistics 1. Used to determine if research results are significant 2. Significant differences are statistically unlikely to occur because of chance alone. B. Avoiding Bias in the Research Process a. Several different types of bias b. Ethnocentrism i. A tendency to believe one s group is the standard against which other groups should be judged ii. Implies the superiority of one s own group iii. Leads to distortion and prejudice 1. For example: Nazism &amp; Religions c. Race ethnicity, culture, and social class i. Ethnicity is a more valuable a construct than race ii. Behavior must be viewed as occurring in a cultural context iii. Cultures can be individualist or collectivist 1. Individualistic cultures stress personal goals and value individual freedom 2. Collectivist cultures stress group needs iv. Social class also effects behavior d. Gender i. Women and men may react differently in the same situation e. Sexual orientation i. Differs from sexual behavior ii. Three sexual orientations are recognized 1. Homosexual 2. Heterosexual 3. Bisexual iii. Unrelated to psychological maladjustment iv. Homophobia v. Heterosexism f. Age i. Older people are a growing percentage of the population g. Disability i. Different views 1. Medical Model (i.e. leg doesn t work bc missing a bone) 2. Moral Model (i.e. leg doesn t work because you have sinned) 3. Social Model (i.e. leg doesn t work.. how can we help you? Crutches, ramps, etc) a. Emphasizes the context of disability h. Diversity Within and Between Groups i. There are usually more differences within a group than between groups ii. Generalizations are virtually impossible iii. Therefore, psychologists emphasize individuals IV. Ethical Principles A. Rules concerning proper conduct in research B. Human participants a. Must give informed consent b. Cannot be coerced c. Can decline to participate at any time C. Information is kept confidential D. Debriefing: A post-experimental interview that explains the study E. Deception can only be used if it has overriding scientific, education, or practical value. V. Point-Counterpoint A. Should Nonhuman Animals Be Used in Research? a. No i. Animals are subjected to painful treatments under the assumption they are lesser than humans ii. Information may not be generalizable to humans b. Yes i. Research with animals has allowed for important studies that would impossible with humans ii. The information from such studies is directly relevant for improving people s lives What Do You Think?