Middles Modern East Notes Islam- One of the 3 great Abrahamic religions means submission Originates in the 7th century Arabia (Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Kuwait etc. ) Muhammad is born in Mecca Born around 570, k now for his honesty, is a merchant Was a deep thinker; went to reflect outside Mecca had a vision Angel Gabriel appeared, delivered the word of God. First word revealed to him was "iqra" which means recite Revelations continues and make up the entirety of the Quar'an (recitation) Quar'an is not divinely inspired, it is the literal word of God His family and friends become the first followers of Islam Centered in Mecca and Medina Quar'an Tone is of morality, tells how to live one's life 2 important ideas: monotheism and justice, especially social justice the only way to live morally is to submit oneself to God's will The Covenant- With God and all of humanity, not just Muslims Everyone is born knowing there is one God, outsides forces warp this belief Recognizes Jesus, Moses, Abraham as prophets Prophets remind people of the covenant Muhammad is the last prophet. There will be no more warnings Allah- God. Pre-Islam viewed Allah as a disinterested arbiter. One could look to Allah to solve disputes. God in Quar'an is like the Jewish and Christian god All human beings will be held responsible for their actions. On the last day, when everyone is judged those who follow the Quar'an go to paradise, those who do not will go to hell. Can be viewed as a legal document *Prophet Muhammad was the best model of Islam Sunna- idea of living as the prophets did. Proper pattern of behavior hadith- reports about what the prophet did and said 9th century- 6 hadiths on Muhammad have become canonical 3 Dimensions of how to live: iman- religious belief ibadat- religious duties ihsan- good works 5 Pillars of Islam 1. Profession of faith 2. Worship- 5 times per day. Ideally done with other muslims. Women are separated from m en. Worship is different from prayer because prayer can be done anytime. Worship is communal prayer with other Muslims 3. Alms giving- 2 % of income. Used to take care of less fortunate Muslims 4. Fasting- requires fasting during Ramadan 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca ka'ba- in center of the great mosque in Mecca. When you face Mecca during prayer you are actually facing ka'ba Economic prosperity and religious importance were always deeply connected. Two sphere were intertwined. Lots of traditions, pagan traditions were often integrated
First 4 caliphs known as the Righteously Guided Caliphs Represented early piety, the best of the early community Split occurred after death of third caliph Uthman, Ali was next successor who was Muhammad's daughter's wife Umayyad family wanted leader besides Ali. Ali is assassinated Umayyads become head of Islam and establish father to son chain of leaders from 661-750 Helped to spread Islam Supporters of Ali felt that Islam's leaders were no longer chosen on piety Known as "faction of Ali": shia 680? battle between supporters of Ali and his son, Hussein, and the Umayyads. Hussein is killed Seen as struggle between the righteous and forces of tyranny Shia and Sunni main difference is question of legitimate leadership Shia claim that the imam, one person, is the ruler of Islam Right to lead passed from Ali to Hussein twelver shism- recognizes 12 imams as descendants from Ali. Twelfth died in 9th century. Believed that 12th imam disappeared but did not die. Will return in future as mahdi or messiah Until he comes back there is no legit leader Question of who leads in absence is still a question Sunni Most Muslims weren't willing to create a rift by supporting Ali Defined by what they aren't in respect to Shia Umayyad Rule 7th century, Umayyads ruled from Damascus from Morocco to past Afghanistan 750- revolution overthrows them (Abasid family) Abasid rule rallied around the Abasid family Established a new dynasty Rules for more than 500 years to 1258 Moved capital to Mesopotamia (Iraq) built Baghdad 1258- overthrown by Mogols and Ghangis Khan establish largest land empire in history sack Baghdad and kills Abasid caliph Islamic world east of the Euphrates becomes part of Mongol world sometimes seen as divine punishment Ottoman Empire Group of Turks on far Western edge of Anatoli (Turkey) Begin to carve out small area of control by carrying out raids and holy war against Christian Byzantines Cross into Europe and the Balkans 1453- captured Constantinople renamed Istanbul th 16 century is height of power- Hungary to Yemen, Algeria to Africa Was officially Sunni At top of hierarchy was sultan, head of everything Descendant of Osman (founder)
Religious groups organized into milets Certain amount of freedom and autonomy. Could be tried according to your respective religion All leaders of milets answered to sultan Every few years Christian youths were taken from the Balkans as a tax Entered the Janissaries or became high ranking officials Not like modern slavery, children were free, but were dependent on Sultan for everything 1683- failed to take Vienna, coincides with the rise of Christian European states 1699- treaty signed between Ottomans and Holy League, central European countries English, Dutch and French had certain freedoms, weren't subject to Ottoman courts End of 17th century French control 85% of cargo leaving Ottoman ports More influence from Europe in traditional Ottoman areas Ottoman empire begins to decline as European states are rising Ottoman empire in the 18th century Beginning of pullback by Ottoman in Europe early 18th- war w/ O.E known as the Holy League (Russia, Poland, Austria, Venice) In 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz- O.E gives up territory in Europe for 1st time Lose Hungary and Serbia 1700- Great Northern War- Sweden, Russia King of Sweden (Charles 12th) lost battle near O.E and fled to Istanbul. Otto's started calling him demirbash, fixture. Urged Otto's to take on Russia They do and can strike deadly blow to Russia but Ottoman Grand Visir waits, Russia withdraws Shows that there isn't a steep decline, it stops and starts. 1715- War w/ Austria, Venice O.E wants peace by 1718. Treaty of Passarowitz -> give up Belgrade The Sultanate 18th century- becomes more of a symbol Sharing of power between sultan and pasha, =lords, households Through marriages, power is spread out highest ranking ulama position is the Sheik of Islam Mufti-someone who give a fatwa, a religious ruling No legal standing, simply opinion. Anyone w/ right credentials can be a mufti. Sheik of Istanbul was generally the Sheik of Islam early 18th century also intermarries with wealthy families As a result, Sultan is very weak and is threaten w/overthrow Threats generally come from the Janissaries Son of Janissaries can become Janissaries and so there is more freedom, wealth Edirme Incident 1703- Mustafa II, Sultan was west of the capital in Edirme. O.E wanted to overtake Causues (sp), mountains by the Caspian Sea Caucues contain Muslims which is a problem for the Janissaries Janissaries revolt Take out hatred against Sheik of Islam (how could he legitimize war against other Muslims?) Revolt is very effective Sheik is deposed and brother is put on throne, Sheik of Islam is tortured and executed incident proves that the any Sultan was replaceable, although idea of getting rid of entire dynasty was never discussed Economic Changes
Before 18th century, idea was land belonged to the state Could be rented out to the highest bidder Land grant was called mukata'a After 18th century grants become grants for life Small group has most of the land population of 24 million, only 1-2 thousand comprise this elite External trade of cotton become more important O.E controls Egypt, which produces cotton Large volume of trade is carried out by French Changes After Treaty of Passarowitz, O.E becomes more prosperous, there is a constant surplus Know as the Age of tulips b/c of tulips planted by wealthy 1730- another conflict brings Age of Roses to a close Nadir Shan took city of Tibris, part of O.E Angers all in O.E "Uncouth Albanian" named Patrona Halil comes to Istanbul and leads uprising against monarchy Known as the Partona Halil Revolt Halil takes over from Sultan, starts ruling Pashas and religious elite didn't like Halil, didn't think he was fit to rule invite him to meeting in palace, then assassinate him 1740s, first Muslim printing press develops in Istanbul has little impact and little interest from Muslims Doesn't really pick up until 19th century Mid 18th century, Ahmed Resmi Enfendi- Ottoman envoy to Prussia (Germany) Goes to Berlin Sees discipline of Prussian army. Prussia were very successful in expanding territory. Janissaries had become uncontrollable and were very undisciplined. Not effective in battle. Idea that military reform is needed becomes increasingly pressing... War with Russian 1710- O.E can defeat Russians but by 1768 they can't lasts till 1774 is a complete defeat for Ottomans Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca- Russians get Crimea, along the Black Sea The Crimea gives Russians a warm water port and access w/ Mediterranean trade by end of 18th century it's clear that some reforms, especially militarily, need to be enacted Reign of Sultan Selim III A lot of 18th century O.E sultans were just cogs in the wheel of the Pasha but Selim II brings a change Began to take a more hands on approach From Selim III until end of O.E we cans see the real personalities and work of the sultan Active mystic, whirling dervishes Corresponded w/ King Louis 13th in France to see how he ruled When he comes to power in 1789, O.E had not gained land in Europe sine 1664 By Selim's time everyone knows the territories aren't coming back Balance of Power There are 5 maim players: Britain, France, Prussia, Austria and Russia Worked to keep one state from over powering the other Congresses are held to settle disputes and make treaties O.E assumed that if they up-held European standards of power they would be invited to the table Europeans see the O.E as on the fringes and not a major players an somehow different
French Revolution 1789- French revolution up heaves Europe and the O.E by 1792 the state had spent so much $$ on wars that the economy was suffering Throughout 18th century O.E had been expanding trade, particularly with France French Revolution brings problems Selim can't do much b/c he doesn't have much control over economy. Mostly nobles in O.E territory in Europe dominate trade. Selim holds imperial councils to ask notables about what he could do to strengthen the army and improve the economy in the way Europe was Notables tell Selim that there are no problems and that everything should remain the same and ignore the ways of the European infidels Selim realizes that more needs to be done especially w/ the military Janissaries Were an entrenched interest society 17th century- had fallen into corruption, stood in the way of reforms Typically replaced from the outside w/ Christian slaves Children of Janissaries were joining No more Christian slaves Discipline falls off, become more concerned w/ enriching themselves Usually whenever a sultan tried to reform the Janissaries they simply overthrew the Sultan Selim introduces nizam-l cedid "new order" to bring order to gov Koca Yusuf Pasha- while on the front line during war w/Russia takes some prisoners and begins training prisoners in European style Simply a novelty at first Brought them to the Sultan Selim likes it and works them into the army brings in French officers for discipline New troops train on the outskirts in secret By 1794 they are revealed, Janissaries are not happy and refuse to serve Clear that Janissaries are unreformable Europe O.E ambassadors are sent to Europe to get states to recognize the O.E as equals Not too successful Early 19th century there are Balkan uprisings against the O.E that are sort of nationalist Nationalism- French Revolution brings idea of association loyalties with nation of people w/shared background Belgrade, Serbia- Janissaries have take over the city acting as a mafia People dislike Janissaries revolt is supported by O.E George Petrovic leads the rebellion drives out the Janissaries but the uprising is too successful for O.E Uprising puts control in the hands of Serbia 1810-ish O.E has no control in Serbia Don' become independent until 1889 (?) but still govern themselves Trouble at Home Orders Janissaries to join new army and wear the European style uniforms. Janissaries revolt Selim III is forced to abdicate
Janissaries lead urban underclass against him nizam-l cedid is disbanded, Janissaries reclaim their role Mustafa 4th replaces Selim Revolt followed pattern of Janissary revolt Selim is remembered as reformer, even though they did not succeed in the short term. Set precedent for reform in the empire. Bayrakdar Mustafa Pasha sees the Janissaries as a real problem and wants Selim back gathers nizam troops an march on Istanbul to get Selim back Wanted to take the burden of military off the Ottoman people Militarily would descend on villages and take what they wanted Actually able to convince grand vizir to bring Selim back but Mustafa 4 th has Selim strangled People are appalled Europe Mahmud II comes to power but it seems like the empire might collapse Russia seems to be interested in dealing a death blow 1812- Napoleon attacks Russia, O.E isn't as important and makes a quick peace O.E loses Greece Follows Serbian revolt- Idea of nationalism influence and guide local uprisings 1820s begins emergence of national Greece movement Greece is seen by Englishmen, Frenchmen as the roots of Western civilization See uprising as roots overthrowing the eastern bad guys Feel that Greece had lived under Eastern tyranny for so long that they had forgotten their roots and they pledge to help Greece Prince Otto of Bavaria (Germany) becomes ruler During time of Mahmud II the reforms of Selim III come to fruition The Janissaries are eliminated after the O.E fails to get Greece back "Auspicious Event" Janissaries rounded up driven into their barracks and killed 1826- End of janissaries, beginning of true military reform Egypt Ottomans take over Egypt known for it's abundance of agriculture Ruled by a largely slave military caste from Circacia (mid13th-16th century) There is a division between the largely Arab peasants and the military elite Turks and Circaisans 16th century, O.E takes over Egypt and lets the Mamluks (slaves) keep their rule in Egypt Late 18th century, Egypt falls out of the control of Istanbul 1798- Napoleon invades Egypt If France took Egypt they could break the ties b/t Britain and Egypt (should this be India?) establish control over Egypt British fleet has control of the Med Sea and by 1801 the French go home demonstrates the importance of the Mid-East in large conflicts Until 1952- Britain works to keep a leader who is friendly to British power 1803- Albanians assigned to keep watch over Egypt overthrow O.E officials Mehmed Ali Pasha takes over Selim III grudgingly accepts him Mehmed plays the Malmuks off of each other to get rid of them (similar to Janissaries) lures them into the citadel and has his troops kill them (1811)
Wahabism Muslim reform movement in Arabia Has support of Arabian military Puritanical Sunni reformism Early 19th century, taken Mecca and Medina from O.E Mehmed takes army into Arabia and ravages Arabia O.E has to rely on Egypt to get rid of sect Egypt (cont'd) 1821- Greece nationalist movement Mehmed has built up a navy, sends son Ibrahim Pasha to put down revolt Lots of Europeans are troubled by Pasha's success, step in to help Egypt Lots of sympathy for Greek "cradle of Western thought" 1827- battle of Navoreno Combined British, French and Russian fleet decisively defeat Egyptians Turning point for Mehmed After 1826, once janissaries are gone, sultan spreads power closer to Egypt until this time Mehmed had been able to rule Egypt freely and sends army to fight O.E in Syria easily take over the local O.E cities and continues on to Anatolia battle of Konia- O.E is defeated (1832) Raises huge alarm in Istanbul 1833- Sultan allies w/ Russia in Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi Gives Russian control of Straits b/t Black Sea and Med Sea Mehmed backs off O.E fights Egypt again and O.E fleet goes over to Egypt Russia doesn't really help O.E seems on the brink of collapse 1839- The Eastern Question The Eastern Question In order to maintain balance of power in Europe, all European states agree to help prop up O.E France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia all concerned that one country controlling the O.E would give country a huge advantage 1841- Congress held in London to decide fate of O.E Mehmed to give up claims in Syria and restrict activities in Egypt in return for a hereditary lineage of Egyptian rulers but still part of O.E, at least formally Will be rulers of Egypt until 1952 After 1841, Mehmed is kept under control and doesn't try anything else, son takes over Mehmed Lai Pasha Tried to bring slaves from Sudan to join Armenian (?) army but they rebelled Sudanese troops did not take well to Egypt Decided to conscript the Arab peasants fellahin Served in the lower ranks of the military not officers Turks still served in the military Military establishment between Arab jidhasi and Turkish military elite By 1820's 12-15% of working age Egyptian men are under arms Started more Western schools where French was main language Good students start to go off to Europe Economically, shift to cash crops State monopolies over cotton, wanted to keep money in Egypt
Realizes that free trade is damaging to a non-industrial country After 1840s European products are sold in Egypt and Egypt has enormous foreign debt Arabia Inner area of Arabia, Nejd, is not really under Istanbul's control but is run by the Bedouins Wahabism Wahabism started by ibn 'Abd al-Wahab, Muslim ulama Stressed the oneness of God, felt it had been forgotten Dislike "innovation" in Islam-> Sufism (Islamic mysticism and the visitation of shrines dedicated to former mystics and pre-Islam prophets) Saw anyone who did this as a polytheist Radical, stressed that the Quar'an and the hedid are the only ways to understand God Wanted to get back to original Muslim community w/o innovations Shari based only on Quar'an and hedid Ibn 'abd al-Wahab has to flee and goes to tribal leader in central Arabia, ibn Sa'ud Two join together, Wahab- religious, ibn-Sa'ud- religious 1773- Have great power in Nejd and attack places under control of Istanbul 1803- Saudis (name for Wahab followers) take Mecca and Medina 1811- Mehmed Ali Pasha drives out the Wahabis and Egyptian army decimates Dariya, Whabi home Ideas of wahabism still continued and still attacks any innovations, including Western ones Iran Iran never had large army or centralized gov Power of dynasty is never very strong Shia Islam is state religion as result of Safavid dynasty (1501-1722) 1722- Sunni Afghans and sack capital city and there is political decentralization 1730s- Nadir Sha unifies Iran but when he dies there is chaos in last half of century Tribal leaders have lots of power as did Shia religious rulers (viewed as most credible) religious had lots of land and didn't need to depend on the gov (big difference w/ O.E) Qajar dynasty centers around Tehran (rules until 1925) founder Agha Muhammad- very violent united lots of tribes and by 1796 had crowned himself sultan Killed and Fath Ali Shah takes over Russians encroach on Georgia in 1801, threaten Iranian control 1812 Napoleon invades Russia, Russia allies w/ Britain and Britan forces Treaty of Gulistan on Iran Iran is forced to give up territory Russians allowed to conduct trade in Iran, bad for Iran Period after Treaty of Gulistan called "The Great Game" Britain wants to protect India, Russia wants to protect borders in Caucuses and Central Asia Iran is in the middle, fortunes dictated by Britain and Russia Russian army would go into Iranian houses looking for illegal Russian brides and would seize valuable Local Shia ulama declared jihad Russians quicly crush army brings the: Treaty of Turkmanchy re-affirmed the borders, gave Russians living in Iran diplomatic immunity Iran Continued ***Need the notes Muhammad Shah
claims to be the living gate of heaven and that he is the 12 th imam Muhammad Ali Tries to give more legal rights to women and children (?) Mehmed Ali Pasha Is succeed by son (?) who has a short unremarkable reign except that Britain started building railroads The Canal British get a portion of Egypt to build a railroad from Suez into India Also build the Suez Canal envisions by Fedinand de Lesseps Isham'il, grandfather of Mehmed Ali Pasha comes to power (1863-1879) is the one who truly gets the canal going Egyptians had to buy the land, supply the workers and restructure their irrigation Britain provided engineers and floated some bonds in Europe Basically bankrupts the Egyptian government Why did they do it? Ismail wanted Egypt to become a European country Idea that eventually the canal would provide long term prosperity Ishamil forced to take out foreign loans and fights w/canal co. over the expenses of the canal Economic Problems Egyptians attack Ethiopians and are soundly defeated, huge amounts of money are wasted 1876- Egypt is effectively bankrupt forced to sell shares of the canal to British gov. four countries- British, France, Austria and Egypt sent up the Pubic Debt Commission to look over the internal financial business of Egypt The PDC puts pressure on Istanbul to get rid of Ismail 1879- O.E gets rid of Ishmail Only goes b/c Britain and France force him out His son Tevfik comes to power Results Egypt has no control over the canal The European interference plants the roots of Egyptian nationalism. People being to see themselves as Egyptian as opposed to Muslim or Christian Miliary Nationalism and Revolt A group of Arabic military officers are particularly nationalistic Ahmad 'Urabi is one of these is seen as the more authentic voice of Egypt because he rose from the peasant ranks and spoke Arabic 1881- revolt breaks out- the Urabi' movement Urabi' wants to get rid of foreigners in the gov and limit the power of the royals British and French that if someone like Urabi' seized control of the gov, the Europeans would never see their $$ could also limit access to the canal 1882- When rioting against gov begins in Alexandria, British fleet begins bombarding the city Tevfik flees to the British British send forces to the canal zone 1882- armies figth and the Egyptians are destroyed and Urabi' is captured and exiled. Tevfik is restored
New Period from 1882 until the revolution in the 1950s the British essentially rule the country Lord Cromer is the Consul general until 1909(?) British also want to extend influence of Sudan Muhammad Ahmed Mahdi claims to be the Mahdi, or the redeemer madhis wanted to overthrown the Egyptians and the British in Sudan Sudan is finally given up Egyptians were really concerned about getting the British out of their country and hoped the French would disagree 1904- British and France sign a friendship agreement so they can concentrate on the rise of Germany no hope of French intervention 1906- In Dinshawe, there is a small fight between the British an Egyptians The villagers are made an example of Turning point Organizations start to form in support of Egyptian independence Oct 1914- O.E enters war on the side of germany Britain declared martial law in Egypt and make Egypt a protectorate of Egypt CLASS MISSED Reasons for the Fall The influence of the West in the Middle East was blamed on the departure from Islam and Islamic law Muhammad ibn' Abdul Wahab head of the Wahabi movement Particularly mysticism, visitation of shrines all that came w/mysticism Muslims had gotten off track\ Some ulama agree with Wahabism Wanted to bring Western discovery and tech into an Islamic framework, in an Islamic culture ie Huda dislike the absinthe of Paris but liked the education and freedom Take some but not all Islamic Modernism and jamal al-din Afghani the take some not all approach was known Islamic modernism headed by Jamal al-din Afghani anti-imperialist activist Jamal wrote against the loans and treaties taken on by Egypt Tefik was under British control. They dislike Jamal's message and make him leave the country He goes to Paris and meets up with Muhammad Abduh They publish a newspaper encouraging religious and political solidarity amongst Muslims lives under house arrest in Istanbul until his death Afghani becomes a thought provoking figure encouraged Muslims to overcome their weaknesses vis a vi the West Islam had fallen into period of decadence and stagnation Still encourages discovery and stagnation Muslims should join together to fight European imperialism Was a major concern for Muslim rulers b/c he called on Muslims to overthrow leaders who allowed Western influence Muhammad Abduhl
Studies at al-Azhar in Cairo (it was the premiere religious school in the Sunni world) involved in urabi movement in Egypt Wanted to show that an educated Muslim did not have to choose between modernity and Islam Argues that the first generation of Muslims was the best Salafiyya- idea that being a good Muslim can find the best example in the first generation of Muslims Also says to take them with ijithad and evaluate them, not follow blindly today the connotation is much more conservative Identity in the Muslim Balkans there is no idea of nationalism In the 19th century there were the beginning of cultural distinctiveness amongst the Arab populations in the O.E felt they were different from the turks 'Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi leaves Ottoman Syria and goes to Egypt Criticizes the Ottoman regime and glorifies the role of Arabs in Islam family and denigrates the Turks Says that God spoke in Arabic to Arabs. Muhammad was an Arab and there was a special place for the Arabs feels that the actions of non-Arab Muslims have caused the problems Wanted to go back to an Arab caliphate center in Mecca Not an Arab nationalist Maronite Christians were Arabs living in Lebanon and Syria Connect with Christians in Paris France saw themselves as protectors of Christians in the O.E were given certain privileges 1860- series of massacres of Christians in Damascus France go into Beirut to curb the violence in 1861 the French organize an international commission to work on the gov of Lebanon to give Christians protection and encourage harmony amongst religious groups Lots of European missionaries head to the area The U.S primarily sends missionaries and nothing else until after WWI 1856- Syrian university founded by Presbyterian missionaries Contact b/t European missionaries and Arab Christians leads to a intellectual awakening Missionaries bring in printing presses and other tech. Creates a religious awakening. Not necessarily shared with Arab Muslims
1878- Constitution is suspended and at the same time many Christian countries in the Balkans gain independence Abdulhamid II is the new sultan. Is very paranoid because his previous predecessor was thrown out due to popular dislike Puts an end to the tazimat movement when he gets rid of the Constitution By 1908 opposition to Adbulhamid's autocracy leads to the Young Turk Rebellions Young Turk Rebellion 1889 student in the medical college in Istanbul establish a secret society called the Committee of Union and Progress They are later called the Young Turks but the first 4 members were one Turk, one Circasssian, one Albanian and one other one I didn't hear Bureaucrats who wanted a return to the spirit of the tanizmat, exiles in Europe all join in Primarily they want a return to the Constitution and the limits on power of sultan Feel that you only need scientific knowledge and nothing else to gain new understanding Saw themselves as the only hope for the empire because of his paranoia Abdulhamid has lots of spies in place and in 1895 he arrests many of the may leaders and exiles them At the same time as Abdulhamid is cracking down on the CUP, the army is growing discontented They often aren't getting paid many military leaders come from the same schools, background and values as the members of the CUP 1908- growing discontent leads to uprising army threatens to march on Istanbul and take over the gov if Abdulhamid does not restore the Constitution Young Turks comes to include those in the army Opposition to the Young Turks many people do not support the Young Turk Revolution 1909 there is a counter revolution against by the CUP lead by religious students, ulama, and the rank-and-file of the army The leaders are from The Muhammad Union They demand a return to sharia (Islamic law) Revolution is put down basically because the CUP controls the army many in the CUP blame the sultan for the uprising and Abdulhamid is sent into exile They don't get rid of the Sultanate, but bring in Mehmed V who they feel is powerless and clueless The Triumverate CUP military leadership: Cemal Pasha, Enver pasha and Talat Pasha felt that gov should be in the hands in the hands of the elite Two are killed after WWI In the first years after the CUP is gone there is an increase in freedom of the press three ideas about how the O/E could proceed: (I cound't get the last one) Ottomanism- commitment to a multi-religious, multi-national state, joined by loyalty to the ottoman royal house people begin to question whether this is realistic 1908- Austria annexes Bosnia Hezengronia, territory that had always been a part of the O.E, Crete declares themselves part of Greece 1911- Ital invades Tripoli/Libya Ottoman's fight but lose and are forced to give up Italy 1912- Albania declared themselves separate
idea that the essential character of the state is Turkish Ziya Gokalp- Our nation is Turkish, our religion is Islam our civilization is European Question of whether this was Turkey with other minorities attached to it The Arab Provinces CUP starts to replace supporters of Adublhamind with more friendly CUP workers in places like Syria, Palestine and Iraq Cup come to be seen as anti-Arab Societies form in support of the Arab identity (Arabism) not nationalism, didn't want to get rid of Turks or O.E but they wanted their share 1907 Britain and Russia sign a treaty called the Anglo-Russian Entente Britain is now aligned with France and Russia Iran is divided into spheres of influence. The northern part of Iran is Russia, the south is British and the middle is no-mans land. The Iranians are not privy to the discussions Iran can no longer play them off each other Muhammad 'Ali Shah In 1908 people loyal to the shah try to take over power again. Have the support of the Russians and the British He is able to restore royal authority and most of the country goes along with it. There is a small pocket of resistance in the north west and the shah can't get rid of them. Russia eventually foes but they still escape. the constitutionalist retake the city and they put Muhammad 'Ali Shah's 12 year old son on the throne want to reform the economy and decide that they need an outside foreign advisor they bring in Morgan Shuster, an American he goes into Iran which is a part of the Russian territory. Russia wants Morgan out, the Iranians have to acquiesce Is the end of the constitutional period after this there are no more meetings of the Representative House Aftermath After 1911 the country is run by a group of conservative advisors who are overseen by the British and Russians In the short term the constitutionalists are a failure Still, the groundwork has been laid World War I The O.E completely collapses. It was Began as result of European concerns Britain, France, Russia vs Germany and Austria Oct 1914 O.E joins the war on the German side. Led into it by the CUP. One of the prominent members is a germano-phile and wants to support themselves O.E was concerned with being isolated in Europe. None of the allied powers were interested in talking with them. The Germans were much more open to O.E/German relations Austria was happy to have the O.E because they were enemies of Serbia Last war fought by the O.E In eastern Anatolia fights Russia. It is here that the O.E commits genocide against the Armenians CUP was concerned that the Armenians were working with the Russians. The O.E sees them as a internal threat. They begin to remove Armenians out of Anatolia, on forced marches into
Syria. They become death marches. Armenians in Istanbul are arrested, deported, executed. Probably about one million Armenians. After the war the British and French take over the Arab provinces of the O.E Anatolia remains free Galipoli Campaign- At the Dardenels the British and French wanted to attack the area near Istanbul so that they could control both the black Sea and the Med Sea One of the commanders at Galipoli went on to found the Turk republic. The O.E is able to hold the Entente powers back British were very concerned with the area near Iran and Iraq. Opened up a front in 1916. British epic fail at one point and are forced to totally surrender but they quickly shape up. 1917 front opened in Palestine Amistice of Mudros ends the front in the O.E. The O.E surrenders completely. Istanbul is put under Brit control and the O.E Arab provinces are shared b/t Britain and France. CUP had alienated lots of CUP elites had replaced them with Turks, given rise to expression of Arabism concern that the Arabs might not be as loyal. The CUP placed Syria under a wartime military dictatorship. Cemal Pasha, one of the CUP leaders, takes over in Syria. Known as the blood shedder. However there was very little room for expression. Britain is worried about the Muslim call for jihad because they had interest in many highly Muslim areas. Britain looked for an ally. They look for Sharif Husayn. His family had served as the protectors of Mecca and Medina. Wasn't a big fan of the O.E. Wrote a letter to the British person (?? his connection) called McMahonn detailing what he would need to be persuaded to revolt against the empire. Correspondence called the McMahon- Husyan Correspondence Sharif Husyan wanted an area near Baghdad and Basra and near the the very north of the Med Sea Agreement reached that perhaps Hasyan would get the area need Baghdad, Basra, with some British intervention. British pledge to help Husayn to build Arab country and agreed to help with the Arab revolt. Arab revolts begins in 1916 and attack the Ottoman garrison at Mecca and begin driving them out of the Arab peninsula. Husayn called on all Muslims to support them in their fight against the CUP. Still, many Arabs do not support. Revolt continues and are led by Hasayn's son and T.E Lawrence Continues in 1917 into Acaba at the head of the Red Sea. Reach Damascus, the place they want for their new capital. The Sykes Picot Agreement recognized French claims to the Syrian coast. Recognized indirect French influence in the area near Damascus all the way to Mosul. British get Basra and Baghdad and got lots of territory from Iraq to Egypt. Wanted to connect Egypt to the Persian Gulf by land. This is contrary to British promises Also Britain seemed to pledge to create a Jewish state near Palestine. Called the Palestine Agreement. Was a promise to support the establishment of a Jewish home in Palestine. Meant that the British would have to control Palestine. Problem is that there are many promises being made about an Arab state, with France about French control and agreements made with the Zionists. 19190 representative from 29 different countries go to a peace settlement in Paris. Were more concern with issues in Europe and not the Middle East. 1920- San Remo Conference- brings the Treaty of Sevres treaty says that the O.E would continue but the area between the straits, including Istanbul,
would be under international control. A number of countries got spheres of influence and Armenian and the Kurds got their own states. Arab provinces divided b/t France and Britain. END OF TESTING MISSED CLASS 1922: end of Greco-Turk war. The Treaty of Sevres is no longer valid. Anatolia is going to be the Republic of Turkey Founded on the idea of Turkish nationalism The Kurds live in Anatolia and resist the idea of a country based on Turkish nationalism. Nationalism is an exclusive ideology Ataturk was committed to republicanism and secularism all religious matters tightly controlled and regulated by the central gov Wants to give idea the Turkish Republic is different than O.E caliphate is abolished Sheik of Islam is done away with Sharia law is swept aside New clothing laws men had to wear Western suits and hats Arabic alphabet is abolished, Latin alphabet is used Children are not allowed any access to old O.E history b/c they were all written in Arabic marginalizes the elites who are not used to the Arabic script disconnected the ulama from running the state most people couldn't read and write so no big deal. Western educated elites are already familiar w/Latin alphabet. Really only hurts the religious elites Iran between WWI and WWII Iran also has a leader who tries to introduce the same type of secularizing reforms Iran wanted to stay out of WWI but b/c of their strategic importance they were pulled British would take control of central Iran (oil), Russia would get the sea and the straits according to a secret pact made by the two during the war 1917- All of Iran is under British control when Russia pulls out b/c of Russian revolution Many Iranians felt that they needed an end to foreign intervention through a stronger central gov. This was easier said then done Azadistan (Freeland) in northern Iran becomes a place for revolutionary movements Near Caspain Sea- jangalis (forest dwellers) stage a rebellion against the Iranian government. Get some aid from the new Soviet Union 1921- Military coup. Reza Khan, head of the Cossack brigade, overthrows the central gov. British actually support him. See that a military man like Reza would be better to deal with and would be adept at putting down other rebels Reza comes to power and tries to seek independence by the gov Sayyid Ziya al-Din Tabataba'i- prime minister following the coup uses army to put down rebellions army becomes the personal instrument of Reza 1920- Iran starts discussions with the US to bring in a foreign financial advisor Arthur Millspauch- signs an agreement w/Iranian gov that gives him full control of Iranian budget 1923- Reza becomes prime minister. Tabataba'i has served his purpose and is kicked out Ahmad Shah- leaves the country. The way is cleared to get rid of old Qajar regime Gov carries many social reforms Forced army conscription Everyone adopts a western surname (just like in Turkey)
Floats idea of republic but people really don't like it. Started to pave the way to get rid of current monarchs and put himself in power. Reza makes trip to Iraq to religious centers to show that he is supportive of religion so that ulama will not oppose him. Gets ready to make himself Shah Founds Pahlavi dynasty Iran is still very backwards Schooling is poor, so is healthcare Gov is not concerned with these things Women face many restrictions Reza Shah sees himself as a modernizer Uses army to put down resistance Says that everything except marriage issues, everything will fall under judicial law Attempts to reform the education system based on the French model 1928- all men required to dress in the Western fashion, except for religious students Women still wore traditional veil 1930s- Reza Shah sees women dressed like Europeans and sees it as a sign of modernization law is passed requiring women to dress like Europeans Women were very upset, like going out naked, harmful to own honor, made women did not follow the law Police started enforcing law by physical force Late 1930s- There is a growing German influence in Iran. Becomes a major trading partner, members of the Nazi party are in Iran looking after German interests. Iran is held up by the Nazis as a pure Aryan land. Not semitic, no Arabs. 1941- Reza Shah doesn't want to get rid of Nazis so the Russians and British invade Reza is forced to abdicate the throne, son takes power, is installed in foreign powers
Post WWI After WW I, the claims of Britain and France in territories near Iraq and Syria by the League of Nations The League felt that these nations (Syria, Iraq) could not stand on their own so the more advanced European nations would help the notion of self-determination was not applied in the Middle-East Palestine area and Iraq goes to Great Britain and Lebanon and Syria go to France The division of the map went against promise to Sharif Husayn for an Arab state that would cover Arabia peninsula and parts of Syria. There were high hopes for the prospect of an Arab state Felt that Husayn's son would be the ruler. There would be a rebirth of Arab political independence. There were no more Ottoman Turks, no more outside interference. However, this would have gone against the Sikes-Picot Agreement and the discussions at San Remo. Britain had made two conflicting promises. Decided that their relationship with France was more important. At San Remo they recognize France's right to Syria News is met with confusion in Damascus The French attack Damascus and easily overtake it. The Syrian kingdom collapses and Phisil (Huayn's son) is sent into exile. Wasn't the end of things for the Hasimites (Husayn's family) Another of Husyan's sons leads an army from Mecca His son, Abdullah is allowed to have the area east of the Jordan. He would still be under Brit control, and would not be under the Balfour Declaration 1921- Establishment of a locally autonomous area called Trans-Jordan
The Mandates The French had mandates in Lebanon and Syria In Lebanon the French claims are based on religious and economic interests going back for centuries In Levant (sp?), there are many Christians whom the French claim to protect. Maronite Christians- recognized by the pope but also have a patriarch in Antioch. It is particularly Lebanese community France also acquires ports on the Mediterranean Sea and area in the Caw (sp?) Valley, which makes Lebanon more legitimate This land/population increase means that the Maronites are only 30% of the population are and dependent on the French 1923- Esevrstablishment of the Republic of Lebanon The Constitution requires the the president of Lebanon be a Christian, that the Prime Minister be a Sunni Muslim and the Speaker of Parliament be a Shia Muslim. Becomes a part of Lebanon's identity. Lebanon is still part of the French mandate Lebanese Christians resist the idea that they are Arabs. See their identity rooted in Phonecians. There is an attempt to divide Syria to combat Syrian nationalism The Alawites- comes from the name Ali who is the first (?) applies to twelver shism in Syria The Druze- "Quasi" Muslim religious community in Syria and Lebanon. The origins of the Druze was a cult that recognized the divinity of the Fatmin Caliph al-Hakim his body was never recovered and his followers believed that he would return as the messiah the Alawite and Druze units are separate from the rest of Syria In Syria the military was something done by the Turks and the Bedouins. In the cities it was not respected. When the French try to create a military academy they have issues The Alawites see it as an opportunity for advancement 1925- The cities of Syria go into open revolt, lasts until 1927. MISSED CLASS
Egypt After WWI
During WWI Egypt was a protectorate of England to protect England's interest in the Suez Canal After the war self-determination was encouraged. Egypt hoped that they would be allowed to choose their own gov but the war had convinced England that Egypt was vitally important to maintaining power in the Mid-East The wafd movement Some elite Egyptians form a delegations, of wafd. They go to British high commissioner in Egypt and ask for a place at the Paris peace conference This motive are Egyptian nationalist but not Arab nationalism not based on the idea of Arab unity They are completely denied The wafd decide that they would go to the Egyptian people, encourage independence there is great support for this Sa'd Zaghlul is the head of the movement had studied law at a French school in Paris but also at a religious univ. (al-Azhar) blend of West/East influence the outpouring support for the wafd in 1919 disturbed the Brits in 1919 they exile the wafd leaders including Sa'd led to demonstrations Edmund Allenby- British commander who became Brit high commissioner in Egypt. Decided the
only way to end the unrest was to bring Sa'd Zaghlul the wafd is allowed to negotiate peace terms with the Brits seemed like the protests had worked Reach a compromises Egypt will be independent. The Egyptian sultan becomes a king- King Faud (is a descendant of Mehmed Ali Pasha) Things are great...sort of. Britain reserves the right to maintain defense and protect foreign interests and future rule of Sudan wafd doesn't like this, continues to make demands. 1923- ask for a parliament, constitution these both happen but still the constitution gave much power to the king. King could dissolve any government he wanted. Would simply dismiss parliament. Wafd starts to act like autocratically. Sa'd Aghlul is very autocratic Biggest problem: remaining British presence King Faud continues to cater to them to retain his power 1936- Britain decides to re-negotiate terms because Tialy has invaded Ethiopia. British decide that they really need a friend in the area new constitution. Taha Husayn- tied to create a new national image of Egypt in his writing. Emphasizes idea of the pharaohs and connection to the Greeks Islam is not emphasized in characterization of national identity. This alienated many Egyptians who saw Islam as part of their essential identity. Feminist movement also focused on secularism, adopting Western ideas to move beyond the harem Muslim Brotherhood Muslim Brotherhood- founded by Hasan al-Banna by the 1930s its membership was in the tens of thousands reaction to the ideas of secularism, ideas of Westernism wanted wholesale by the elites thought that Islam should be the guiding force in the way people thought about society said problems in Egypt began when the Quar'an and hedid were ignored Hashan al-Banna thought that the sharia was perfected human reason. Tech and other improvements were gifts from God and there were no contradictions b/t Islam and tech The Brotherhood had a program of social reform promoted redistribution of land Founded schools that taught both religion and natural sciences, free clinics, soup kitchens etc because all the people in Parliament are fighting and not doing anything, people begin to think that charity, social welfare, is directly tied to Islam Sudan traditionally has very close ties to Egypt Blacks in Sudan had usually been slaves for the rest of the Mid-East in the north there were lighter colored Muslims who could not be taken in as slaves 1880s- Madhi movement is founded bu Muhammad Ahmad claimed to be the madi, or Messiah of Islam started to acquire many followers opposition to British and Egyptians in Egypt only way to restore Sudan was to drive out everyone else. Similar to Wahabbis begin conquering norther Sudan British decide to step in 1883 but are wiped out by the fighters State continue to be led by the mahdists even after Muhammad Ahmad dies British send troops in again in the late 1890. Led by Lord Kitchner who succeeds in defeating the Mahdists and conquering Sudan. This ends the mahdists movement but many
people feel that he Mahdists still defeated the British and showed they could fight. Though that with calls for Islam, foreigners could be driven out Sudan is put back in Brit control Sudanese nationalism has to fight against British and Egypt. Many Egyptian nationalists believed that Sudan was just a part of Egypt. Legally, it was. Missed CLASS Iraq War in northern Iraq there is the Kurds also Yazidis who have a pre-Islam, peacock worshiping people and the Turkmen who are Turkish nomads British establish Iraq under the Iraq mandate 1920- there is a tribal uprising amongst the Arab tribes by the Euphrates British interests in Iraq India want to control imperial communication from the motherland to India Petroleum Britain decides to give as much rule as possible to Iraq Brits settle on Amir Faysal (Sir Alan Guinness) leader of the Arab revolt against Ottomans, backed by the British deposed by the French when he takes over Damacus Enthroned as King of Iraq, becomes King Faysal Iraq is a hereditary, constitutional monarchy Elected legislature, official religion is Islam Islamic law is used in jurisdiction in civil matters Army is established, public school system Sati'al Husri becomes minister of education 1930- Britain signs treaty with Iraq promising freedom within two years 1923- Egypt given freedom but Britain still has rights to defend Egypt, control some internal communication, same thing for Iraq- they have to purchase all weapons from Britain 1932 Iraq gains freedom but remains in the sphere of influence of England first of the Arab mandate states to become independent 1940- Britain receives a 75 year concession to petroleum in Iraq- Iraq Petroleum Iraq gov can't buy stock in the company Faysal dies in 1933 and is succeed by his son Ghazi he is rather inept Center of politics shifts from the central palace to a small clique of politicians old Ottoman pashas, Arab, took part in Arab revolt against the O.E all Sunni, so the shi'a becomes marginalized One of the powerful members becomes the prime minister, army would go in, topple the gov and install another politician, process would repeat the army becomes the arbiter of politics Ghazi dies in 1939, suceed by three-year old son, Faysal II Put under regency of Abd al-Ilah he becomes the main power Nuri al-Sa'id becomes powerful, he and Abd al-Ilah dominate Iraqi politics and are pro-British four colonels in the military carry out a coup in 1941 and bring Rashid Ali al-Gaylani to power, he becomes the prime iminster represents anti-British sentiment
During WWII they deny British the right to build base in Basra. Iraqi troops surround base in Baghdad and try to take it, overthrow it May 1941- Britain declares war on Iraq, defeat Iraq in less than one month Britain brings back Nuri al-Sa'id and Abd al-Ilah To many Iraqis, seems like Britain still sees Iraq as a part of the kingdom gov as very small base of support 1955- Baghdad pact- alliance between Great Britain, Pakistan, Turkey and Iran. Anti-communist treaty Discontent with the pro-British gov leads to coup in 1958 by General in the army named Abd alKarim Qasim a bloodbath, entire royal family, prime minister's family is killed, no more Nuri al-Sa'id and abd al-Ilah Qasim declares a republic but doesn't old any elections, it is essentially a dictatorship military still controls balance on power Another military coup i n1953 because of this led by Abd al-Salam 'Arif trans-Jordan 1921, aftermath of the Arab revolt Amir Faysal's brother, Abd Allah, tries to help The British take him and give him trans Jordan has basically no political coherency, is a part of the province of Syria British installs Abdullah in Oman they are afraid of what the Bedouins are capable. They were essential in overthrowing the Ottomans, Brits don't want this to happen to them. The brits give lots of military support and personnel to help Abdullah 1928- removed from the Palestine Mandate, but Brit still controls the budget, foreign relations and other essential things were most interested in creating a reliable army. The Arab Legion is started. It is an arm of British foreign policy in the Mid-East. Made up of tribal Bedouins and villagers. They become well trained, reliable and loyal to Abdullah this becomes a trend; the ties between military and leaders When WWII breaks out Abdullah is quick to lend his support to the brits. After the war they are given independence. By 1949, they have control of some territory on the other side of the Jordan and become simply Jordan Book: Jordan traditionally plays a reactionary roles and is wary of taking on any pan-Arab projects The Palestine Mandate British issue a policy statement in 1939, backing away from promises made during the Balfour Declarations. Said that there would be strict immigration policies and that in 5 years, Jewish immigration would cease and shortly after that Palestine would become independent. This was outraging for the Zionist but provided hope to Arab Palestinians. As Nazi atrocities come out there is sentiment in the West that settlement of Jews in Palestine might atone for the horrors of the Holocaust. This was v. popular in the U.S U.S becomes center of Zionist activity Isreal Harry Truman becomes strong supporter of a Jewish state. Becomes a strong supporter of the Biltmore program Series of statements made by Zionist Congresses during the war that call for unlimited immigration and an established Jewish state
Jews in Palestine disagree with the Brits but obviously there is opposition to Hitler thousand of Jewish volunteers join Jewish forces. A Jewish brigade is established. Provides essential training British workers often turned Jews away from Palestine during the war Leader of Zionist is David Ben Gurion becomes first Prime Minister It is decided that b/c Brits will not allow state to develop with immigration, the state must be taken by force the irgun is the militant arm of the Provisionist Zionists even during the war begins carrying out a terror campaign against British officials 1946- King David Hotel is being used by Brits in Jerusalem for military HQ in Jerusalem. It is blown up By Feb of 1947, Brits realize that things are bad and decide to refer Palestine to the UN The UN starts a Special Committee on Palestine 1947- UN spends 5 months in Palestine and recommend that the Palestine Mandate be terminated and an independent state be established 3 members call for one unified state, 8 say it should be two states, Jewish and Arab US is very strong backer of the partition plan Palestinian Arabs are marginalized in discussion because there is no real coherency in absence of leadership, other Arab states jump in. Syria and others are sympathetic to the plight of the Arabs result is that UN partition plan is rejected by Arab leaders Britain says May 15, 1948, we are leaving. They don't set up any transition process, are eager to get out. This plunges Palestine into civil war. There is a scramble between Jews and Arabs to gain land. Forces from Hagganah (?) try to secure areas where there are Arab Palestinians which leads to resistance and conflict. Many Arabs leave in a very contentious and controversial way Were they forced to leave or did they leave of their own accord? New Israeli historians are saying that the Arabs were forced off lack of British order is very damaging Massacres on both sides Hours after British leave Haifa, David Ben-Gurion declares the foundation of the state of Israel US and Soviet Union formally recognize 1948 war All of Arab states are defeated and Israel emerges with more land than under the UN plan the partition plan is dead in the water the Arab countries are all suspicious of each other and there is not full cooperation. Their armies are very poorly done, in contrast to the Israeli forces. There is lots of Israeli zeal but not much Arab zeal Israel British mandate power from 1920s to 1948 hadn't created any local gov institutions no coherent transfer of power in Palestine the announcement of British withdrawal in 1948 spurred a land grab. The Brits didn't care, referred it to the UN 1948- Day after Brits leave Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq and one other country attack Israel. Israel kicks their ass Disaster for the Arabs Dec 1948- War has ended and each of the Arab states signs a ceasefire agreement by the end of the 1948, the area comprised of the British mandate is held by three different groups.
Israel has lots of it, Egypt held the Gaza Strip There is no established Palestinian state about 700,000 Arabs become refugees There were incidents of forced evacuations of Arabs Results of the War The defeat in 1948 because almost a civilization problem After Arab countries gained their freedom there was this idea of pan-Arabism, idea that they needed to ban together to fight things like Zionism Becomes a serious regional issue goes from a war between 5 countries and Israel to an Arab-Israeli conflict The French Mandates French mandates in Lebanon and Syria 1939- War in Europe, France is under occupation of Nazi Germany French mandates of Syria and Lebanon become a part of the Axis colonies G.B gets nervous fear that these countries could become launching pads for attacks on British mandate states in the Middle-East Charl de Gaul(leader of the French resistance) and GB sign agreement to help Syria and Lebanon They invade in July of 1941. They are soon under de Gaul's control and he doesn't really want to give them independence. Elections are held and anti-French govs win France installs constitutions thought that perhaps the countries would be totally independent Shukir al-Qurrwatli new leader of Syria part of the old O.E elites Lebanon's problem is the solution to the sectarian issues Christians are afraid that once Lebanon gets independence it will merge with Syria. National pact of 1943 says the Lebanon will remain a coherent, sovereign nation and that it's basic identity was Arab no matter whether one was Arab or Christian decides the formula for representation in the government the National Pact enshrined Christian majority in the government based on the 1932 census still is the basis ratio of 6:5 Christians to Arabs religious identities become enshrined in the local culture the Shi'ite Muslims are underrepresented and continues to grow fast than other demographic groups France still hasn't given up control by the end of WWII There is violence and France responds, particularly in Damascus Brits put pressure on France and by the end of '46 they are totally gone and Syria and Lebanon are totally on their own The two are embarrassingly defeated in the war, particularly the Syrians Army officers start to blame Shurkir al-Qurrwatli led by Husni al-Za'im start to see military dictatorships and more coups another is led by Adib Shishakli Syria
French didn't encourage Syrians to associate with Syria, they were encouraged to view themselves in a regional or religious sense Many political parties emerge The Bath Party the Arab Bath party is founded in Syria means resurrection in Arabic founded by orthodox Christian, Michel Aflaq along with Salah al-Din Bitar Encouraged ideas of cross-border Arabism Idea that Muslim religion is a part of the Arab identity Spirit of a socialist, communist revolution. There is a sense that Syria needs revolutionary reform. Baths in Syria talk to Egypt about joining together (?) to form a United Arab Republic (?) Egypt becomes the dominant country in the merger and the Syrians start to lose power in the relationship. There is a lot of dissatisfaction with this union and it ends three years after it began shows the problems with pan-Arabism. People have old homeland identities and Syria is Syria and Egypt is Egypt. Practically, it doesn't really work out. Hafiz al-Asad- joined Syrian air force, is an alowite drawn to the idea of the Bath party Egypt leader is the biggest leader in the Middle Est from 1952 to the mid 1960s. Represented the progressive, hopeful Arab leader that the area was hoping for. There was hope that after WWII, Britain would leave Egypt and give up possession of the Suez Canal. Presence of Brits in Suez, existence if Israel and memory of defeat were all dark spots in the time period. The gov was sort of in crisis b/c of this. Also lots of econ and social discontent. Widening gap b/t wealthy and everyone else. Gov didn't want ot address this b/c they were the wealthy landowners Muslim Brotherhood, founded in late '20s in Egypt, grows more powerful. Saw the key to Egypt's freedom and independence was returning to Islam. By the late 40s there are 500,000 members in Egypt. Imperialism associated with the west, Islam seen as more representing the real Egypt. Also a militant aspect. 40S-systematic campaign of violence against westerners in Egypt and those who colluded w/Westerner. Often these people were higher ups. 1948, Egyptian P.M tries to cut down on the brotherhood and they kill him in response. Egypt is in social, political upheaval. 1951- Wafd P.M declares that treaty b/t Britain and Egypt in 1938 (?) no longer applied. Was a cutting of ties. Lots swept up into idea of nationalism and lots of armed guerrilla fighters begin taking on small numbers of British Jan 1952- British tanks open fire on police barracks and kill 50 policemen. Real upsurge in demonstrations and riots. Jan 26, 1952- black Saturday. Several hundred thousand demonstrators in Cairo. Lots of Cairo is destroyed, target anything that is a symbol of corruption and immorality: bars, nightclubs, movie theaters. Signals the end of control for the monarchy. Group of junior officers called the Free Officers led by Gamal Abd'l Nasser who saw defeat in 1938. Fear that their low background would prevent people from joining them. Persuade Muhammad Naguib, a high profile colonel/general (?) to join them. Group comes ot power in 1952. Want to end British occupation and create social reforms. Strong national army. Form the RCC which is lead by Nasser RCC wants to get rid of the monarchy. King Faruq is forced to abdicate and go into exile. Now the Republic of Egypt.
RCC now turns to rul ing elites. Military basically takes over gov. also mil takeover in Syria early 50s, Iraq, late 50s, Egpyt 1952. Rise of a new military generation. Also crackdown on the Muslim brotherhood Problem b/c Muhammad Negib, who has become the P.M, beings to express ideas contrary to Nasser. Nasser says he is in cahoots with the Brotherhood and Negib is placed under house arrest. Nasser comes to total control of the RCC. 1952- passes agrarian reform law. Limitations on the amount of land anyone can own. Idea is to take land and give it to peasants. Reforms and redistribution becomes a hallmark of Nasser. However, the RCC had banned all other political parties and any candidate who wanted to run for Parliament had to be screened. Women are allowed to vote for the first time. Very popular but very much in control. Suez Crisis- 1956 1954- Nasser signs treaty w/Britain and Britain promises to leave canal zone in 20 months. They begin leaving. Knee deep in cold war Syria (?), Turkey, Iraq, Iran sign the Baghdad Pact, which is a western alliance Nasser refuses to sign and is able to convince others This refusal cuts Egypt off from the military aid flowing into the Mid-East from US When Palestinians in the Gaza Strip attack Israel, Israel often responds full force and often targets Egyptian bases in Egypt occupied Gaza Strip 1965- Nasser makes arms deal w/Czechoslovakia $200 million worth of arms in exchange for cotton Nasser is celebrated for this 1956- US withdraws loan offer made through the world bank that would have done building, development projects in Egypt days later, Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal. It no longer belongs to the Suez Canal co (owned by France and (?) Britain) but to the people of Egypt. Nasser becomes a hero in the Arab world British P.M calls it outright thievery Britain, France and Egypt. Nasser says that the canal absolutely belongs to Egypt but that he is willing to pay for the canal. Israel, France and Britain sign secret treaty to take out Nasser. Oct 1956- Israeli forces start advancing, Brit planes start bombing Cairo, canal zone Looking to invade Sinai (did they do this? Need to find out) The UN brokers a cease-fire agreement which probably saves Egypt because the combined armies were heading for Cairo and Nasser was hanging on a thread More importantly the US and Soviet Union out pressure on the three nations to stop. Britain and France are no longer superpowers and France especially needs aid from the U.S and the Soviets are threatening rockets. Also, the U.S had no idea about the agreement. Results Suez Crisis is viewed in the Arab world as a great success for Nasser. Feel that he had stood up to foreign imperialists and had placed the Suez Canal in Egypt. Nasser emerges as a hero. Israel's participation only confirms idea in the Arab world that Israel is aligned with the West and that the West would use Israel to further their imperialism Nasser begins to place his identity on the idea of Arab nationalism Ideologically speaking in the 20s and 30s intellectuals played down the Arabness and discussed more the Pharaoh tradition and its ties to Greece or Egypt
The U.S was seen as taking the baton from Britain in imperialism. For a long time the influence of the West had been associated with domination and interference Jordan King Husayn idn Talal of Jordan came to rule in 1952 and wanted to distance himself from Nasser even though there was lots of support for him within Jordan Jordan starts to dismiss people in the gov, including the P.M, who staunchly support Nasser and receives $70 million from the U.S United Arab Union There were a number of communists in the Syrian gov and the Baths and the U.S were concerned that the Commies would take over. Everything is seen though a cold-war ideology 1957- Turkish troops, since Turkey is allied with Syria, set up borders on the Syrian-Turkish border Some Syrian officials go to Nasser and suggest joining together Within a few years there is lots of dissatisfaction from the Syrians after a few years. Announcement of the UAR in 1958 is met with excitement and euphoria in the Arab world could be the beginning of something great Iraq and Jordan leaders are concerned because they do not support Arab unity but their people do in 1958 form their own hasimite union but this has little popular support In Lebanon Christians were nervous about the idea of a UAR because if Lebanon goes along the Marnite Christians would be submerged in a bigger state with a Muslim majority pres of Lebanon, Camille Chamoun, is committed to keeping Lebanon in a western alliance Commander of the Army, Faud Shihab refuses to bring in the army when Muslims protest turns to the U.S for help, 15,000 Marines land in Lebanon. Things start to settle down. Chamoun steps down and Shihab becomes the pres. Ideas of nationalism and foundation of the UAR effect aogther parts of the Arab world like Jordan, Syria and Iraq day before the announcement of the UAR, Quasim stages a coup to take over Iraq Jordan seems like it's on the brink of civil war and that King Hussein might lose control. He doesn't b/c he appeals to British military. Jordan is now aligned very clearlywith Britain and against Nasser . Events in Egypt were part of general movements against the imperialism of the West and the embracing of an Arab ideology Limits were soon tested. Union b/t Egypt and Syria and expected to continue Quasim of Iraq is not ready to bring Iraq in the UAR b/c it would mean giving up his own power qawm- people quawmiya- pan-Arab nationalism watan- homeland wataniya- state based nationalism seen in Iraq. The territorial entity In the German example there is the German people. 1860S and 70 there is a sort of unification of Germany although there are Germans living in other places. Germans in Austria has some interests in Austria and Austrian leaders wouldn't be willing to give up power. *** Nasser is all for pan-Arab nationalism as long as Egypt is in the drivers seat The conflicts b/t the two qawm and wataniya cause the end of the UAR. End of experiment of Arab nationalism Syrias were drawn away by their own concerns in Syria. Those who had suggested the joining realized that the influence of Syria would be subordinated if they stay in the UAR
this is not the totally end; Nasser's prestige continues to suffer especially when he enters the Egyptian army in a civil war in Yemen. Egypt gets bogged down it in and suffers many losses. Yemen debacle is not as important as Egypt's defeat in the 1967 War repeat of the humiliation Egypt and neighbors suffered in 1948. Following the breakup of the UAR in 1961 there aren't any other attempts for Arab political union instead Arab unity becomes more about solidarity against Israel. We won't have political union bu we will have solidarity against Israel. 1967 war poisons relationships between countries who were sympathetic to each other during the pan-Arab movement Egyptian military is almost totally demolished and Nasser's words and ideas are seen more as posturing Turkey After the O.E Mustafa Kemal Ataturk comes to power chooses surname Ataturk which means something like old father Orders a transfer from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin alphabet most old, religious Arabic words are outdated but words from European languages, especially France, are kept Partially to marginalize the religious The Republican's People's Party becomes the only party in Parliament Dies in 1938 and there is a huge outpouring of sadness and grief Many Turks feel that had it not been for his guidance after WWI, Anatolia would have been carved up by European powers like Syria and (?) Iraq Succeed by Ismet Inonu Politicians call for the introduction of opposition parties and Inonu complies The Democratic party does well in it's first showing challenge a fundamental basis of Ataturk's political ideology and wanted to keep the state out of people's lives next election they sweep the People's Party out of the government Two main people of the Democratic government pres- Celal Bayar prime minister Adnan Mederes they and most of the others in the Dem. Party did not come from the military this was a substantial change; gov no longer guided by military officers restored the call to prayer to Arabic allow for some religious expression but Turkey remains secular By mid 1950s there was widespread discontent with the Dems. Economics. Tried to introduce industry but did it too quickly and by 1960 there are huge numbers of demonstrations. Menderes responds with repression. Tension between army and gov. Former pres. Inonu is going to a political rally and Menderes orders army to stop him. When Inonu, Ataturk's right hand man, emerges from the train they just let him go Soon after the army carries out c coup led by Gemal Brousau (?) claimed purpose of coup was to return things to Kemalism returned power to the people within a year Menderes and Bayar are both sentenced to death although Bayar is spared coup sets a precedent in Arab politics many thought that he executions were a bit much so there was an ill feeling about it all sets precedent for military intervention in Turkish politics 1971- coup by memorandum
sent a memorandum to the P.M and says it would be best if he stepped down and the P.M does so 1980- army steps in again to quell fighting between leftist and rightist. People welcomed the interference because things were so dangerous. The army is seen as preserving good. After 1945 Turkey given lots of $$ by the U.S to resist the Soviets U.S puts military bases in Turkey so they can easily strike Europe. This becomes a problem during the Cuban missile crisis. Turkey has major problems with Greece over Cyprus which (?) somehow was with Great Britain protest start of Cyprus. They want freedom and want to affiliate with Greece(?). Cyprus is granted independence from Britain in 1960 but Brit, Greece and Tukery (?) are allowed to keep troops on island 1960s- Cyprus tries to limit some of the rights of Turks Missed notes, put them in the blue notebook (probably) Israel and Palestine Israel dominated of David Ben Gurion 1948-1963- continuously the prime minister and at other times the Defense minister Kanesset- unicameral parliament there is a parliamentary democracy a great number of parties and the power holders often have to form a coalition Jewish pop. had doubled by 1951 came from Eastern Europe and from Arab states also 160,000(?) Palestinian Arabs Nationality law- gave automatic Jewish citizenship to any Jewish person in the world. Also gave citizenship to any Arab who could prove long standing ties in Palestine issue of Palestinian Arabs living in Israel was a question of Israel's national identity idea that Israeli Jews are different than Jews living in other places; wanted them to identify as living in Israel make Hebrew the national language and immigrants are encouraged to give up their native languages Israeli got rid of their European surnames and took Hebrew surnames 1950- law stating that every Jew in the world has the right to immigrate to Israel 1963- Jewish courts recognized as having powers to decide on personal issues like divorce or marriage under control of orthodox rabbis who apply the strictest interpretations. They were not the majority but they controlled the law courts. Muslims and Christians were able to be judged(?) in their own courts Distinction made between Jews and Arabs on the Israeli ID card Foreign Relations Even after 1958 there was no peace treaty with the countries surrounding Israel Ben Gurion declared that in order for Israel to survive it would need to be "a nation at arms" military service is required Israel adopts neutrality during the Cold War As Soviet Union tries to get ties with Arab states, Israel begins to move to the United States Develops close ties to the U.S Late 1960s, U.S policy makers see Isr. As a strategic ally in the Middle-East against the Soviet Union gave 100s of millions of dollars to support Israel what about the Palestinian Arabs? There is an immense refugee problem
1950- 960,000 Palestinian refugees. The number continues to rise dramatically live in makeshift refugee camps in countries surrounding Israel plans that eventually they would be incorporated into the new Israel however the Israeli gov after 1948 makes this seem more and more unlikely As Jewish immigration continues, Palestinian land and farms are absorbed by the new immigrants lots of educated Palestinians found work in the gulf states small proportion, most Palestinians had lived in small villages and had left almost everything behind in their villages. They had no recourse. In refugee camps, tents are replaced by temp buildings and then cinder block homes begins to resemble some sort of village but the refugees were not recognized as members of the countries they were living in there were restrictions on movement and employment if there were Jewish people coming from Egypt and Arabs coming from E Surrounding Arab countries don't want the Palestinians to organize politically countries don't want to be affiliated with the guerrilla warfare and resistance that it found in the camps. The Israelis would use overwhelming force and some of it might be directed towards the country creates a unique Palestinian identity and fosters the idea that Palestinian refugee status can only be eliminated by a return to their homeland b/c they aren't going to be integrated After 1967 Palestinians began organizing themselves into groups to try and get back their coutnry June 1967 Taken to be true that Israel was going to attack Syria Nassir steps in UAR has broken up, he's gotten involved in the Yemen civil war sees the war as a way to restore his image and beings to deeply troops to the Sinai Peninsula U.N troops had been sent to Sinai after the Suez Crisis. Nasir tells them to get out, and to Nasir's surprise, they get out Encouraged, Nasir declares a blockade to the entrance of the Gulf of Acaba King Husayn of Jordan signs a coalition with Egypt and Iraq joins up. Israeli gov decides that Egypt has pressed Israel's hand and Egypt is attacked Destroys much of the Egyptian air force before it can get off the ground. When Syria and Jordan enter later that day Israel does the same thing. Israel is able to easily advance all the way to the east bank of the Suez Canal 4 days later Egypt is forced to sign a ceasefire Jordan is pushed out of Jerusalem and out of the West Bank Israel goes into Syria and captures the Golan Heights they are now close to Syria and a ceasefire is signed only 6 days after the war began Jordan loses the west bank and jerusalem, MISSED TWO CLASSES There is a popular revolution led by unarmed people against the ( ) dynasty sponsored by the U.S Led by Khomeini was a complete shock to the United States Khomeini tries to set up a new government asks Mehdi Bazar Gohn to be the Prime minister Council of Islamic Republic, made mainly of ulama, became the main legislative and judicial power
was able to overturn any law made my Bazar Gohn. He is so frustrated by this that he soon resigns Khomeini begins to consolidate his power and starts the Revolutionary Guard- a para military group made of mostly poor city men. They were outside the jurisdiction of Bazar Gohn Islamic Republican Party- going to be the organizational structure of revolutionary ideology. Worked to discredit who disliked Khomeini and thus were anti-revolutionary Main power struggle is between IRP and the biggest strands of the freedom movement. Wanted some sort of secular state. Worked to associate the freedom movement people as very Westerner Asserted Iranian national feeling, shi'ism as part of this identity Referendum passes in March of '79 in favor of an Islamic state What does this mean practically? Needed to be worked out constitutionally Bazar Gohn who is at this point still in office, is charged with creating a constitution which recognizes that Iran will be a constitutional republic. First draft gives no special political powers to the ulama. Ulama submit a new version calls for a directly elected president, P.M chosen by the President and an elected single chamber Parliament or magilice council of guardians- group of learned religious men who would give final approval on laws based on their conformity to Islamic law also one supreme leader- would rule on the principle on the guardian of holding the place of the Mahdi until his return commander of the armed forces and could rule on the qualifications for president Revolution changes the role of the ulama. They had always been advisors and mediators between the people and the rulers. They were interpreters of the divine rule. After the revolution they become the rulers. Revised version of the constitution is put ot referendum and it passed 1980- Abul Hasid Beni Said (sp) becomes first president was sort of opposed to the dominance of the ulama elite Said first has to deal with the U.S hostage situation led to very bitter relations between the U.S and Iran and Khomeini's regime in the United States attempts were made and failed to get the people back went a long way to costing Carter the 1980 election Hostages are released after Reagan is released 1980- Iran is invaded by Saddam Hussein just as it is killing of and removing officers in the military who had been loyal to the shah most Arab countries supported Iran by 1981 Ben al'sad is impeached because he doesn't fall in line behind Khomeini. This is the end of the secular moderate voice in Iran 1981- Islamic left, Mujahandeed (people's holy warriors? ), carried out terrorist attacks against the regime trying to destabilize it. Partially communist? Very conservative view of Islamic law: dress code for women, no contact b/t unmarried men and unmarried women, music, dancing banned U.S tried to maintain ties with Iran in a back door manner Mid '80s U.S supports no arms sale to Iran. On the side they sell anti-missle stuff through Israel. Do this to lean on Shii(?) state department didn't know what was going on, only people in the White House Khomeini dies in 1989 and 'Ali Khamenei becomes new Supreme Leader. He had formally been president. Was not considered an Ayatollah
'Ali Akbar Rasfsanjani becomes new presidnet. Is part of the ulama but wants to open Iran economically 1997- Muhammad Khatami comes to power. Very popular, elected as a reformer. Less conservative support from women and young people young people resented the social codes told people to stop chanting death to America at protests Seems like reform and change in relations was possible however, Khatami is restricted by the Guardianship, who reject many of his reforms by 2005 many Iranians were disillusioned by him Rise in anti-American feelings after "Axis of Evil", Iraq and demands that Iraq stops nuclear development Conservative Mahmud Ahmadinejad is elected in 2005 Iraq 1968- there is another military coup. Seems like par for the course. However the 68 coup brought a regime that lasted until the U.S invasion in 2003. Time was dominated by Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein born in 1937 to a family of landless Suni-Arab peasants in Tikrit. Raised by his uncle who had taken part in uprising against the British left Tikrit to go to high school and joined the Ba'th Party Saddam has to leave Iraq after participating in failed coup Coup in 1968(?) was a Ba'th Party gov at first. Saddam comes back but tide turns against the Ba'ths and he is imprisoned. Escaped in 1966 Is loosely related to Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr who negotiates to have Saddam be deputy secretary of military (?)for the Ba'th Party Coup in 1968 Saddam is vice chairman of the RCC (Revolutionary Command Council) There was a great purge of people in the gov and military of people who were not wholly dependable. Most of their replacements were from Tikrit. Saddam's contacts with the army helped his power grow. Bakr and Hussein sought to consolidate power and create a one party state Although Saddma has no military power he is able to gain serious support from the military and marginalize Bakr. In 1979 Bakr resigns as president and allows Saddam to take his place basically head of everything had problems quelling discontent amongst Kurds and Shii Arabs the Kurds wanted autonomy in northern Iraq Hussein and co had discussed giving more freedom but by '74 a full scale war has broken out Muhammad Reza Shah begins supporting Kurds against Baghdad by '75 settlement over Shattah Waterway is achieved. The Algiers Agreement is signed complete disaster for the Kurds Iraqis forcibly moved 250,000 Kurds are displaced from the north into other areas of Iraq to try and breaj up ethnic solidarity does nothing, Kurds are soon in rebellion again The Shii mainly found from Baghdad and south authority of Shii ulama is very important. Iraq is center of Shii learning ulama dissatisfied with the treatment of the Kurds '79- begin to call for end of the Bath regim. Found the al-Da'wa which is a religious call to action, is dedicated to overthrowing the regime and starting a new no Bath government
As this is all happening, the Iranian Revolution occurs and Khomeini is calling for a widespread revolution 1972- ba'th regime declares nationalization of Iraqi oil the next year brings a huge rise in oil prices which is great for Iraq Iraq had close ties to the USSR but also with the West. They need foreign expertise to keep their oil fields running. Many Brit, France, US co.s get contracts in Iraq Khomeini singles out Saddam and calls for him to be overthrown to prevent revolution from spilling over into Iraq, Saddam invades Iran. He has the support of the US people thought war would be a quick win for Iraq Saddam underestimates; the invasion results in a groundswell of support for Khomeini Becomes one of the longest conventional wars of the 20th century By 1982 war became a war of attrition Iran cripples Iraq's oil systems and Iraq is forced to look abroad and borrowing $$ from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. U.S provides military intel. The Ayatollah was definitely the enemy There was this idea that if Iraq fell other oil rich gulf states would fall too Iran has one last stand. They take much of northern Iraq. The Iraq air force responds by bombing the town of Halabja with chemical weapons this scares the crap out of Iran and they negotiate a peace treaty huge waste life and energy. Lasts for 8 years, 375,000 die Result: Iraq becomes major military power, has major debts to Sadui Arabia and Kuwait Being pressuring Kuwait to forgive $60 billion debt because Iraq defended entire region against Iran 1990- Iraqi army invades Kuwait and declare Kuwait annexed When U.S invades Kuwait the US is horrified that Saddam could control oil. US troops are sent to Saudi Arabia (Gulf War)
Test: you need to do who,what, when, where, why, how and why is it significant. About three sentences.