214 Psych Exam Study Guide
Memory 6.1 Memory: a bestiary a. Integration of all memories over lifetime much of self 6.2 Memory is for interaction with the world a. "The basic claim is that an individuals memory serves perception and action." Glenberg b. Interactions i. Memories of interaction with entire stimuli 1. Value of stimulus against another encounter reaction ii. Memories of interaction with structured environments 1. Navigation manipulation of landmarks iii. Memories of interaction with structured situations 1. Episodic memories give rise to concepts 2. Concepts statistical regularities to facilitate foresight, hierarchal iv. Memories of self 1. Recognition of own body in environment is for the powerful minded 2. Language-capable species results in autobiographical memory and maintenance of a narrative self v. Memories of interaction with other agents 1. To anticipate the behavior of predators, prey, mates, and other participants of a society (if any). 6.3 Simple memory for entire stimuli a. Simple memory coined by Marr, flash card for digital camera analogy. i. Signal recording and recall ii. Hippocampus thought responsible by Marr, records "bits" iii. In computing: SR latch b. Associative memory i. Relies on conditional probability ii. Involved with perceptual learning and language acquisition iii. Autoassociative recall retrieval of entire record given a key that directly relates to it. (Analogy: pig tail for pig) iv. Heteroassociative recall retrieval given a more indirect (possibly metaphoric) reference. (Analogy: I now pronounce you frog and ____) c. Attractor dynamics i. Feedback systems represented by energy surface (graph of inputs). 1. Analogy: ball rolling down hills into valleys 2. Tendency for steady states ii. Motor memory equilibrium steady state d. Memory for Sequences i. Transitioning through intermediate states to final state(s). ii. Analogy: ball rolling down hills into valleys (attractor).
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e. Learning and using the dynamics i. Specific recall can occur when starting from appropriate initial state. ii. Smooth spaces retention, slow to learn iii. Erratic space fast-learning, more prone to forget 1. Catastrophic forgetting massive displacement of old memories by new ones Memory for structure in space and time: navigation and events a. Cognitive Maps i. Using associative memory, pairing navigational choices with local cues ii. Navigation Cues 1. Dead reckoning measuring off and integrating route information 2. Landmarks a. Piloting landmark based nav iii. Place Cells neurons in hippocampus that fire due to familiar landmarks (rat in maze, certain neurons fire at particular region of maze) 1. Less than a map not bound by framework, not homogenous 2. More than a map keeps track of space related vars (speed, heading, turn direction) iv. Episodic Memory links all of these theories in navigating Memory for structured objects and situations: concepts a. Concepts representational entities that can be classified i. Kinds and categories ii. Space and time iii. Cause and effect iv. Goals and plans v. Scripts and Strategy Memory for social needs a. Imitation i. Easiest when mimicking movement vision closes the loop; motor control is employed to adjust control parameters. ii. Considered "easier" to show a robot a behavior rather than program it in. b. Intentional stance human tendency to attribute intentions to any behaving object Conceptual simulation: yours is the world, and they that dwell therein
a. Priming prior exposure to a stimulus, affects response time on subsequent presentations. b. Simulation visualization when recalling memory, or motor reenactment, for example. i. Indistinguishable in outcome than performing computation by regular means. ii. Functionally transparent 6.8 The stuff memory is made on a. Hippocampus episodic memory, supports hetero- and autoassociative recall. i. Low dimensional nature enables cortical areas surrounding hippocampus to learn random associations among stimuli in the appropriate modality. b. Temporal Lobe semantic memory c. Memories are graded between episodic and semantic. 6.9 Using memory a. Meta-cognition i. Tip of the tongue having answer to question almost within reach ii. Feeling of knowing confidence in knowing or not knowing despite availability or requirement iii. Ease of learning anticipation of ability to learn iv. Judgment of learning anticipation of level of performance before being tested b. Mnemonic often uses episodic (hippocampal) memory i. Memory Theater write mnemonic cues for every scene 6.10 Being used by memory a. Meme evolutionary replicator, like genes, involved with propagation. Language 7.1 The structure of language a. Two complementary factors i. Stimulus (language) ii. Nature of learners b. Structure from regularities: a first glimpse i. Inferring structure from statistical regularity & chunking ii. Hierarchical structural analysis c. Structure and generalization d. Structure and meaning i. Lexicon set of words in ones mind ii. Compositional Semantics meaning of a composite expression is systematically determined by structure e. The source of structure i. Grammar rules of sentence structure and therefore which meanings can be encoded in sentences ii. Tree of grammar = structure, recursive types 7.2 Learning language structure a. Learning is learning of regularities
b. Reason for language communicating at a high level, manipulating high level representations so that understanding can be generalized. i. Representation the invariant minds map of words to concepts, interpretations, etc. c. Unitization making objects out of features, or larger objects out of smaller ones d. Collocation set of words that have a tendency to appear together in various contexts e. Complimentary distribution signaled by different words appearing in the same contexts 7.3 Language in context a. Discourse context used to resolve ambiguities in language b. World context referencing environment. c. Representational context lexicon-grammar and network of concepts 7.4 Language as a (neuro)biological phenomenon a. Transformational generative grammar (TGG) linguistic framework where abstract syntactic structure is manipulated in sentence generation. Involves Chomsky b. The neurocomputational basis of language i. Motor cortex is stimulated by various action words: kick, pick, and lick ii. Detailed parallels between language and vision c. Other parallels i. Receptive fields responsible for hierarchical composition of units, unitization, recursive growth of structure, etc. ii. Trainable templates field gets imprinted with stimulus via fast learning. If enough repetitions occur, template survives. Otherwise, it gets recycled. iii. Attention focusing on sentence iv. Attention sharing allows for some shared direct representation of language on the level of the single cell, evolutionary 7.5 Using language a. Comprehension determined by projecting dynamically onto multidimensional record of prior experience b. Production interplay of statistical (recurrence) and structural effects (concepts, motor mapping, etc.) c. Translation synonymous but not equal Thinking 8.1 Varieties of thinking: an introduction a. Involve motivation, personality, and social interaction. b. Despite these intricacies, computational side of thinking requires a few "numbers." c. The Frame Problem how to design a system that would be able to infer just the relevant [antecedents and] consequences of any changes in the situation at hand, without needing explicit and detailed frame axioms. 8.2 Varieties of thinking: I. Problem solving
a. A solution space can be accessed through a graph of states and legal transitions. b. "climbing" states transitioning progressively c. Limited to time and memory costs 8.3 Varieties of thinking: II. Reasoning a. Deduction conclusions drawn from premises i. Modus Ponens and Tollens b. Casual reasoning probabilistic generalization of deduction c. Induction forming generalization/rules from specific instance d. Evidential reasoning abduction, guessing 8.4 Varieties of thinking: III. Decision making a. Subjective Utility theory judgments subject to situational and personal context 8.5 Thinking outside the box a. General fluid intelligence (gF) 50% of variance of mental ability tests b. A subject who does well on one "high-g" test is likely to do well also on others. c. General fluid intelligence and working memory both reflect 'the ability to keep a representation active, particularly in the face of interference and distraction d. The effects of environment on intelligence fade rather than grow with time. e. Breakdown of G i. genes: ~ 50% ii. shared environment: ~ 0-10% iii. unique environment: ~ 40-50% Articles Grounding conceptual knowledge in modality-specific systems. Modality-specific systems knowledge is directly involved with perception, action, and emotion (direct mapping to neurons) Most current theories: Amodality-specific systems perception, action, and emotion is converted to a representation with hierarchy However, researchers report modality-specific systems underlie conceptual processing. Language triggers perceptual stimulation o "mane and pony" faster reaction times because of spontaneous association Bodily states in conceptual processing o "open the drawer" triggers pulling motion in motor cortex The basic-level convergence effect in memory distortions. ,,,,The animal shook hands with its paws is better facilitated when dog rather than animal is given as a recall cue Gist (abstract) memory vs. specific (concrete) memory. Study finds that despite findings that state memory gets more abstract over time, abstract information may be instantiated in more specific terms. What is learned: item specific knowledge and generalizations
There is always a tension between being a "lumper" and being a "splitter". As a biologist once put it, "splitters see very small, highly differentiated units their critics say that if they can tell two animals apart, they place them in different genera, and if they cannot tell them apart, they place them in different species... Lumpers, on the other hand, see only large units - their critics say that if a carnivore is neither a dog nor a bear, they call it a cat" (Simpson, 1945).
Language comprehenders mentally represent the shapes of objects Mechanisms of theory formation in young children bayes nets, casual thinking (deductive) Neuroeconomics: cross-currents in research on decision-making Research in neuroscience and psychology has begun to investigate neural bases of decision predictability and value, central parameters in the economic theory of expected utility. Economics, in turn, is being increasingly influenced by a multiple-systems approach to decision-making, a perspective strongly rooted in psychology and neuroscience. The integration of these disparate theoretical approaches and methodologies offers exciting potential for the construction of more accurate models of decisionmaking.