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and Mountains Plate Tectonic Cycles Mountains formed during Pangaea assembly, e.g. Appalachians, Urals, Atlas, Scandinavia Mountains at present plate boundaries, e.g. Himalayas, Alps, Andes, NA Cordillera Rodinia Future super continent Relationship between first-order sea-level changes and Plate Tectonics cycles Lowest sea levels correspond to periods when supercontinents existed. Pangea Rodinia First-order cycles of global (eustatic) sea-level change Possible explanation: sea level changes are affected byspreading rates. Periods of faster spreading rates at ridges correspond to higher sea level. Periods of slower spreading rates correspond to lower sea level. First-order cycles of climate change? Phanerozoic climate cycles and their causes are debated. The debate centers around relative significance of atmospheric CO2 and O2 levels and factors that determine them including volcanic activity (and ultimately-Plate Tectonics), biological activity and deposition of certain sedimentary rocks (for instance, formation of carbonate rocks removes excess CO from the atmosphere). CO2 as a primary driver of Phanerozoic climate Dana L. Royer, Robert A. Berner, Isabel P. Monta ez, Neil J. Tabor, David J. Beerling GSA Today, 14(3), 4-10 www.gsajournals.org/archive/1052-5173/14/3/pdf/i1052-5173-14-3-4.pdf A CO2 and climate A. Comparison of model predictions (GEOCARB III; Berner and Kothavala, 2001) and proxy data. Shaded areas represent range of errors for model predictions; B. Light blue indicate cool climate, dark blueIce Ages; C. Distribution of direct glacial evidence (tillites, striated bedrock, etc.) by latitude (Cowley, 1998); D. Oxygen isotope data from ocean sediments matches glacial record when corrected for pH effects. B C D Major plate tectonic events of Paleozoic: breakup of Rodinia (began during late Proterozoic) and assembly of Pangea. Before Pangea, supercontinent Gondwana was assembled. Pangea during Permian R.S. Dietz and J.C. Holden, Reconstruction of Pangaea, Journal of Geophysical Research, 75:4939 4956, 1970, copyright by the American Geophysical Union. Plummer et al., 2007 Cambrian Upper Ordovician Paleozoic Ice Ages: - Upper Ordovician - Carboniferous- Permian Devonian CarboniferousPermian Carboniferous-Permian glacial deposits Source: After Arthur Holmes, Principles of Physical Geology, 2d ed., Ronald Press Cratonic sequences and orogenies in North America during Paleozoic and Mesozoic Cenozoic Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Permian Pennsylvanian Mississippian Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Wicander & Monroe, 2004 Paleozoic orogenies (mountain building) along eastern margin: Taconic, Acadian, Ouachita, Alleghenian formed Appalachian Mountains. Antler orogeny occurred along western margin. Paleogeographic maps of North America during Paleozoic Wicander & Monroe, 2004 Transgressions and regressions Transgression: rising sea level, marine transgression, most continent is covered by the epeiric sea Deep ocean Epeiric sea Epeiric sea land Deep ocean Continental crust oceanic crust oceanic crust Regression: falling sea level, epeiric sea covers only the margins of a continent, increase in land area land Deep ocean Epeiric sea Epeiric sea Deep ocean Continental crust oceanic crust oceanic crust Formation of Appalachian Mountains www.jamestown-ri.info/northern_appalachians.htm 575 ma 470 ma 450 ma 425 ma 410 ma 375 ma Rifting of Rodinia, opening of Iapetus Ocean Subdiction brings volcanic island arc close to Laurentia Volcanic island arc collides with Laurentia (Taconic orogeny) Subduction brings microcontinent Avalonia Avalonia collides with Laurentia (Acadian orogeny) Africa (Gondwana approaches Laurentia Africa (Gondwana) collides with Laurentia Ouachita-Alleghenian orogeny) 350 ma Taconic orogeny in Canada: mountains formed at convergent plate boundaries were eroded forming Queenston Delta Deposits of Queenston Delta in Ontario Plummer et al., 2007 Geologic cross section of southern Ontario Eyles, 2002 Major events in Paleozoic history of life - 565-525 ma: Cambrian explosion, most animal phyla originates; organisms with hard shells and first vertebrates evolve; ~ 475 ma (Ordovician): first plants move onto land; ~ 450 ma (Ordovician): arthropods invade land; ~ 365 ma (Devonian): insects and tetrapods evolve; ~ 360 ma (late Devonian): evolution of plant seeds; ~ 330-323 ma (middle-late Mississippian): amniotic egg evolves; reptiles evolve and reproduce on land; ~ 350-290 ma (Mississippian-Pennsylvanian): vast forests cover swampy areas on land; ~248 ma (end of Permian): the largest mass extinction wipes out 95% of all species; All major animal groups except for Bryozoa originated during Cambrian period (Cambrian explosion). Burgess shale Discovered in 1909 by Charles Wolcott in Yoho National Park in Canadian Rockies Organisms in Burgess Shale are believed to be buried by undersea landslide Significance of Cambrian explosion - all basic body plans for animals appeared; - organisms with skeletons, external and internal; - rapid diversification of fauna; Why did Cambrian explosion happened? - skeletons provide much better protection and support for a larger body (may be the reason why organism sizes increased); - predation caused diversification among prey; exoskeletons provided advantage; -increased level of oxygen allowed for larger body size and skeleton though the reason for this increase remains unknown; Nine most important animal phyla (out of 35) Mollusca Porifera Cnidaria Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida Arthropoda Echinodermata Chordata Devonian reef: crinoids, anemones, corals Most phyla appeared in Cambrian except all Bryozoans (Ord), some Cnidarians (Ord, Tr), some echinoderms (Ord), some arthropods (Sil). Annelida evolved in Precambrian. Archaeocyathids: sponge-like organisms that became extinct during middle Cambrian. Built the first reefs. Phylum Arthropoda Trilobites. At Arcy-sur-Cure in France, a 15,000-yearold human settlement, one of the artifacts found by archeologists was a trilobite that had been drilled to be worn as an amulet. Became extinct 245 mya. Phylum Brachiopoda. Brachiopods were very abundant during Paleozoic, rare in modern seas. Mollusca Ammonoids relatives of cephalopods, evolved in Devonian Cephalopods: squid-like animals that reached several meters in length, were predators, evolved in Ordovician Evolution of ammonoids Lobobactrites , B-C, Cyrtobactrites, D-F Anetoceras (Anetoceras), G-H Anetoceras (Erbenoceras) Plylum Bryozoa Phylum Echinodermata Acritarchs: phytoplankton (0.02-0.15 mm) Phylum Hemichordata Graptolites (zooplankton) and Silurian Devonian Silurian reefs: tabulate and rugose corals (extinct) Tabulate Rugose Phylum Porifera Stromatoporoids: extinct sponges with hard compact skeletons, Pumped water to create current to extract food particles from water, major reef builders Phylum Arthropoda: the most successful species of all, 75% of all species of living organisms and fossils, more than 1.1 million species Invaded land during Ordovician, insects evolved in Devonian Eurypterids: sea scorpions (phylum Arthropoda)- fearsome marine predators, 0.1-2 m in size Hibbertopterus Tail trace of a giant scorpion ~1.6 m in size, found in Scotland in rocks ~330 my old Insects evolved from arthropods in Devonian. During Carboniferous, they evolved an ability to fly. Approximately 315 million years ago, insects developed wing-flexing ability. The change in body form, from larva to pupa to adult developed 290 ma (late Carboniferous) Phylum Chordata Chordate is an animal that has a notocord (dorsal nerve cord) and gill slits. Vertebrates, the subphylum of chordates, have a backbone. Chordate from Chengjiang fauna, China (lower Cambrian) Origin of vertebrates Remains subject of debate. The closest living relatives are urochordates and cephalochordates Urochordate larvae has notocord Lancelet: cephalochordate that burrows into the bottom but can swim Wicander & Monroe, 2004 Ostracoderms: jawless armored fish (Cambrian- Devonian) Hangfish (above) and lamprey Extinct ostracoderm are present jawlwss fishes ( Cephalaspidomorphi) Acanthodians: large spines, scales, jaws, teeth, reduced body armor (early Silurian-end of Permian) Placoderms): heavily armored jawed fish (Silurian-end of Permian) Jaws evolved from first two or three gill arches Cartilagenous fish: Devonian -recent Ray Shark Ray-fin fishes: Devonian-Recent Present examples: tuna, bass, perch, pike, catfish, trout, salmon Lobe-finned fishes: Silurian-Recent Coelacanth fish (Latimeria) was considered extinct but was caught in Indian ocean several times since 1938 Lungfish: lives in freshwater in S America, Africa and Australia Latimeria was caught off coast of Indonesia Rhipidistians are considered ancestors of amphibians Wicander & Monroe, 2004 Transitional fossils (fish-tetrapod) Palaeontologists Professor Neil Shubin, from the University of Chicago, and Professor Edward Daeschler, from the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia hit the jackpot in 2004. The team found three near-complete, well-preserved fossils of the new species, Tiktaalik roseae, in the Nunavut Territory. The largest measures almost 3m (9 ft) in length. Tetrapods-four-legged vertebrates Acanthostega (~365 ma): complete fossil was discovered by J.A Clack in 1987 in Greenland although parts of skull were found in 1933 by Gunnar S ve-S derbergh and Erik Jarvik. Amphibians evolved in late Devonian Eryops, large amphibian Ichthyostega, one of the earliest (2 m) amphibians Lifestyle: semiaquatic, streams and swampy areas, fed on fish, vegetation and other amphibians Amphibians are a taxon of animals that include all living tetrapods that do not have amniotic eggs, are ectothermic (body temperature is regulated by the external environment, also called cold-blooded), and generally spend part of their time on land. Most amphibians do not have the adaptations to an entirely terrestrial existence found in most other modern tetrapods (e.g. reptiles, mammals). There are around 6,200 described, living species of amphibians. Amniote egg evolved in middle Mississippian Tortoise hatching (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniote) Amniote egg: contains food source (yolk), waste sac (allantois), protected by hard shell Reptiles evolved in late Mississippian-early Pennsylvanian - The amniotic egg allowed reptiles to reproduce on land by preventing the embryo inside from drying out, so eggs could be laid away from the water. - It also meant that in contrast to the amphibians the reptiles could produce fewer eggs at any one time, because there was less risk of predation on the eggs. - Reptiles don't go through a larval food-seeking stage, but undergo direct development into a miniature adult form while in the egg, and fertilization is internal. Tetraceratop Crocodile-like therapsid; skull from Perm region in Russia (255 my old) Therapsids evolved from Pelycosaur reptiles in Permian. Some consider them transitional between reptiles and mammals. Many paleontologists think they were warm-blooded and covered with hair. Dimentrodon, a finback (Pelycosaur) reptile (Permian), a carnivore. Evolution of plants Ordovician Devonian Permian Mesozoic era Late Devonian Silurian Transition from marine green algae to land nonvascular plants took place in Ordovician. Vascular plants (also known as tracheophytes or higher plants) are those plants that have lignified tissues for conducting water, minerals, and photosynthetic products through the plant. Early vascular plants (reproduced by spores) Both plants above are Silurian Baragwanathia longifolia Cooksonia (Silurian), early vascular plant Rhynia (Devonian) Carboniferous coal swamps covered vast areas on continents USA has the largest coal reserves in the world. Extensive coal formation took place during Carboniferous and CretaceousTertiary. Present coal swamps Reconstruction of coal swamp from Pennsylvanian period of Paleozoic era smtc.uwyo.edu/coal/swamp/types.asp Coal mining in Kazakhstan (photo by Galina Morozova) Calamites: horsetail tree (reproduced by spores) Present horsetail Psaronius, fern tree up to 20 m (Carboniferous) Seedless ferns (began in Devonian) Seed fern Medullosa (began in late Devonian) Seedless plants of Pennsylvanian Lepidodendron- up to 40 m high Sigillaria-up to 30 m high Seed plants: Cordaites The greatest diversity of the Cordaites was achieved in the cooler and drier temperate forests. The Cordaites also contributed to coal formation as swamp plants and mangrove type trees in coastal environments. The leaves of Cordaites are strap-shaped, generally thick and leathery. Seed plants: cycads and ginkgo (appeared in Pennsylvanian) Coniferous trees: early Permian Walchia piniformis Ernestiodendron filiciforme Culmitzschia goeppertiana Coniferous forests appeared during Permian as climate became colder and drier Possible causes of Paleozoic mass extinctions - end of Ordovician: climate change, Ice Age; - late Devonian: possibly asteroid impact and climate change; - end of Permian: flood basalt eruption (Siberian Traps), global warming, release of methane from ocean bottom, additional global warming, anoxic oceans Recommended: The day the Earth nearly died (BBC documentary)

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