Notes
Characterizing Zoology Life
Zoology "science dealing with or relating to study of LIVING animals What is life? What does it mean to be alive, to be living? Reproduce? Fire can reproduce! Must have ALL 5 CHARACTERISTICS! (page 2) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Organization Metabolism Homeostasis Reproduction/Growth Adaptation/Irritability
(chart on page 3) MEMORIZE! Emergent Property "A quality that appears as biological complexity increases."
2 Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed (energy of the universe is constant) 2. Every process increases the entrophy of the universe (entrophy- measure of disorder) Does Life Break These Laws????? NO! Organisms are open systems Taking in oxygen, gives off heat, and maintain life! Metabolism- "chemical reactions within cells that maintain life" Message: Organisms maintain order at the expense of increased entrophy of their surroundings.
Producers Extract energy from nonliving environment Consumers Obtain energy and nutrients by eating other organisms Decomposers Consumers that obtain nutrients from dead organisms and organic wastes.
Our body is like a thermostat (air conditioning system) , always fighting the change Irritability "an immediate response to a stimulus-often related to survival" Adaptation "an INHERITED trait that enables an organism to successfully reproduce in a given environment" Natural Selection Enhanced survival and reproductive success of certain individuals from a population based on inherited characteristics. #6 in packet Individual does NOT evolve...only evolves in generations!
Diversity of Life
ALL life (on Earth) is made of 1 or more cells All cells Have similar chemical makeup and processes Have DNA that uses the same genetic code (ACTG) Have ribosomes (protein factories) Have a plasma (cell) membrane Acquire nutrients and expel wastes What forms of life do we know? 18th Century 2 Kingdoms: Animals and Plants (invented binomial nomenclature) Haeckel -1866 3 Kingdoms: Animals, Plants, Protista ......all "simple" life forms Whittaker (1969) 5 Kingdoms 1. Monera: all prokaryotes (bacteria) 2. Protista: algae, protozoans, diatoms 3. Fungi: yeasts, mushrooms 4. Animalia: all animals 5. Plantae: all plants
Woese Llate (1970's) 3 Domains based on genetic (rRNA) analysis
2 Domains (Archaea and Bacteria) contain only prokaryotes (Eukarya) contains everything else!-have nuclei *Figure 1.7*
Viruses Not living No active metabolism Not Cells NO VIRUS CELLS Bacteria that cause tooth decay? Bacteria Tapeworms? Animalia, Eukraya Mistletoe? Plantae HIV? All of the above There is Unity of Diverse 1.5 million species named Estimated diversity 5-30 million From cells down all life is similar
Living Continually Evolve
Taxonomy- Classification of organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships or branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying organisms. Nature of Science Science- comes from Latin verb meaning "to know" What is a (good!) hypothesis? Possible explanation for an observation Testable It is the "if" in "if"-"and"-"then" Basic Chemistry Composition of matter *Element* 92 occur naturally~ 25 essential to life Bulk Elements C-Carbon H-Hydrogen O-Oxygen P-Phosphorous S-Sulfur N-Nitrogen
oxygen 65% carbon 18.5% hydrogen 9.5% nitrogen 3.5%
In a neutral atom: # of protons = # of electrons Atom is to cherry as cherry is to Earth Mass # = protons and neutrons Electronegativity- "Hog electrons" (oxygen) Bonding Ionic Bonds e.g. NaCl -Na=11 (1 valence electron); Cl=17 (7 valence electrons) Covalent Bonds e.g. water, organic compounds sharing of electrons "nonpolar covalent bonds" Hydrogen Bonds (e.g.) N,O DNA is held together by hydrogen bonds Water & Life Water is both cohesive (stick to itself) And adhesive (stick to other things) *Bending Water* (negative comb) is attracting (positive water) Water is a good solvent 2H20H3O+ +OHpH= -log[H+] 1=very acid; 14= very basic; 7=neutral Blood= 7.35-7.45 pH= log *10M+ .0000001 pH=7 sour slippery 14=Draino a high H concentration pH=-log *10M] .01 pH=2
High heat capacity (specific heat: 1 cal/g/C) HO so hard to heat? (hydrogen bonds are holding them together)
High heat of vaporization (takes lots of energy for water to evaporate) Expands when it freezes Hydrogen bonds and the electronegativity of oxygen Organic Compounds Chemical Reaction Types: Synthesis A+BAB Dehydration Synthesis: Water molecule is lost as bond is formed Decomposition: ABA+B Hydrolosis: Bond is broken through the addition of water Monomers: Small, single unit molecules Polymers: linked monomers Carbohydrates =Cn(HO)n Monosaccharide's -simple sugars, 3-7 carbons Straight chain or ring -e.g. glucose, ribose, fructose Disaccharides 2 monosaccharide's joined via dehydration synthesis -e.g. sucrose, maltose, lactose Ose= carbohydrate Polysaccharide Long chains of monosaccharide Important in storage e.g. starch (plants), glycogen (animals) CHO=Glucose LIPIDS Triglycerides and fatty acids = Monoglycerides Glycerol with 2 fatty acids= Diglyceride Unsaturated fats= kinky, veggie oils At room temperature they turn into liquids Saturated fats= butter At room temperature they turn to solid
Phospholipids Make plasma membrane and cells Sterols -cholesterol -steroid hormones -vitamin D,....
Proteins Amino Acids - "Building Blocks" of proteins - 20 Amino Acids, 8 Essential - (you must eat them) meat, grain, rice, legumes. Basic Structure of Amino Acid Peptides Peptide- covalent bonds between 2 amino acids
Cells
Cellular Baics of Life
Hooke(1660's)- observing cork tissue- coined them "cellulate" Van Leeuwenhoek (1670's)- used single-lens microscope to observe microorganisms Brown (1830's)- nucleus (1830's)- Schleiden nucleus Schleiden (1840's)- cells present in all plant tissues; nucleus important in reproduction Schwann (1840's)- reported cells in all animal tissues
The Cell Theory (Schleiden &Schwann)
All organisms are composed of one or more cells Cell basic living unit of life Virchow (1855) All cells come from pre-existing cells 1. Prokaryotic- no membrane bound nucleus Ex. Bacteria, Archaea 2. Eukaryotic- membrane bound nucleus Ex. Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia *Figure 4.6* Cell Membrane (intracellular-inside, extracellular-outside) -
*Figure 4.3* Functions of Membrane Proteins Transport of chemicals across membrane As an enzyme As a receptor site for chemical messengers (hormones) Cell Adhesion As attachment site for cytoskeleton Permiability Diffusion Osmosis- equal concentrations of solute= dynamic equilibrium Gradient- gradual change in some quantitative property over specific distance [48] [49] Selective Permeability Some substances cross more easily than others 1. Permiability of lipid bilayer Nonpolar (hydrophobic) molecules: cross easily (e.g.O) Polar Molecules Small, polar, uncharged pass easily (e.g. HO. CO) Larger, polar, uncharged do not easily pass Large, charged, not passing easy 2. Transport Proteins Provide a hydrophilic channel Movement by active transport (ATP needed) 3. Movement of macromolecules Endocytosis- cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from plasma membrane Exocytosis- secretion of macromolecules out of cell by fusion of vesicles How do cells release energy? Cellular respiration- ATP producing, catabolic, process in which the ultimate electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule, such as oxygen. ATP- adosine triphosphate: contains unstable phosphate bonds that the cell hydrolyzes for energy. [53] *Figure 8.1*
Parts of a Generalized Animal Cell
[39] [40] Nucleus- (nucleoli) Contains chromatin (DNA/proteins) 5 microns diameter Enclosed by nuclear envelope - Double membrane - Pores regulate molecular transport Contains nucleolus - Ribosome synthesis Mitochondrion (mitochondria)Contains ribosomes and some DNA Few to thousands/cell Enclosed by 2 membranes Sites of cellular respiration Ribosomes Protein synthesis Free ribosomes -proteins will function in cystol Bound ribosomes -proteins destined for membranes Inclusion or export Not membrane bound Prokaryotes have ribosomes too Streptomycin, tetracycline inhibit bacterial ribosomes Endolplasmic Reticulum (reticula) "inside cytoplasm network" Continuous with outer membrane of nuclear envelope Rough and smooth (2) Smooth ER: -lacks ribosomes -synthesis of lipids, phospholipids, steroids -carb metabolism -detoxifies drugs and poisons -stores calcium ions in muscle contraction Rough ER: -studded with ribosomes -synthesis of new membrane and proteins destined for secretion Golgi ApparatusModifies, stores, routes products of ER Packaging center of cell
Lysosomes Recycling center of cell Membrane enclosed bag of hydrolytic enzymes Digest all classes of macromolecules Recycle cells own organic material Peroxisomes Neutralize and break down oxygen Membrane bound In all eukaryotic cells Help us use oxygen Disables oxygen free-radicals Animals v. Plants (eukaryotic cells) -not found in animal cells Chloroplasts (only plants and some protists) Cell wall (plants, fungi) Vacuole (plants, fungi, protists) -found only in animal cells Lysosomes Centrioles The Endosymbiont Theory Ecosystem Plants do cell respiration
Substrate-level phosphorylation (SLP) ATP production by direct enzymatic transfer of phosphate from an intermediate substrate to ADP Chemiosmotic phosphorylation: (CoP) ATP production coupled to transfer of electrons from food to oxygen (oxidative phosphorylation) *Figure 8.5 in book, 55 in packet, UNDERSTAND* *Figure 8.6* [56] in packet
The intermembrane space in the mitochondria has the highest concentration of H *Somatic Cell Division* 9.02 [75] The Cell Cycle S Phase: Figure 13.1
Early 1950's Franklin and Wilkins used X-ray diffraction to determine 3D shape of DNA 1953 Watson and Crick discover double helix structure of DNA [67] [70]
DNA Replication (Figure 13.13) Pull it apart and more Complications - Replication proceeds in "bubbles" bidirectionally at multiple sites -DNA polymerases only can add nucleotides in one direction [73] -new DNA strand elongates in 5'-3' How can replication proceed in both directions? [74]
DNA Replication
Study Okazaki, Ligase, 5 and 3 prime, lagging strand, leading strand Ligase joins Okazaki fragments and seals other nicks in sugar-phosphate backbone
Process of Mitosis
Mitosis The process of nuclear division that occurs in somatic (body) cells - Results in the maintenance of chromosomal number (i.e. 2n parent cell produces 2n daughter cells) - N= number of unique choromosones G2, Late Interphase Cell checks for complete DNA replication Nucleolus- where ribosomes are being synthesized Prophase Chromosones condense, become visible. Spindle apparatus forms. Prometaphase Nuclear envelope fragments. Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores. Metaphase Chromosones align along equator of cell Anaphase Sister chromatids (now called chromosones) separate to opposite poles of cell Telophase Nuclear membranes assemble around two daughter nuclei. Chromosones decondense. Spindle disappears. Cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm into two cells G1 early interphase
The number of protons in an atom is known as its: Atomic Number Which domain are humans in? Eurkarya Which of these atoms has the largest radius? Na H Cl H N (left and bottom) CL Which of these most likely to participate in an ionic bond? H C K (K) look on chart [19] and memorize!!! The monomers that make up DNA are known as: Nucleic acids Amino acids Fatty acids-(phospholiids) Nucleotides***** Nucleosomes- NOT PART OF DNA