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Succession: Caliphal The `Abbasid Caliphate The `Abbasid Caliphate The `Abbasid period in its entirety covers approximately half a millennium spanning the years 132/750 to 656/1258. Consequently, historians have divided the period into three sub-periods. The primary era, being known as the first `Abbasid period (132/750-247/861), is generally regarded as a period of growth and prosperity, having built upon the successes of the Umayyads. This is followed by the second `Abbasid period (247/861-447/1055), which is regarded as era of political decline, due to the events leading to the loss of `Abbasid power. Finally, there is the third `Abbasid period, which includes the eventual collapse of the caliphate (447/1055-565/1258). The `Abbasid Caliphate Their claim to authority came through their familial link to the Prophet's uncle al-`Abbas and they would later counter the `Alid claim to authority - since they were also of Prophetic lineage - by showing that their link was through a male relative, i.e. al-`Abbas and not through a female one, i.e. Fatima, the Prophet's daughter, which was apparently still an important factor despite this being a supposed post-jahili, Arab society. This call, or da`wa, proved very popular and gained great support in the eastern provinces generally and in Khurasan in particular. Subsequently, it would be support from this province that would bring the `Abbasids to ascendancy and remain their powerbase for years to come. The `Abbasid Caliphate The seemingly religious overtone to their claim of legitimacy as rulers was consolidated by their adoption of honorific titles (alqab, sin. laqab), which was unprecedented and seemingly added to their apparent link with God and later, by their patronising of religious learning, which equally added to their claim of `orthodoxy'. The `Abbasid Caliphate Their powerbase constituted a departure from the `Arab aristocracy' of the Umayyads, since the majority of their supporters were in fact of Persian origin. Thus, the early `Abbasid period became synonymous with the rise of the Persian `clients' or mawali, who occupied key positions in the `Abbssid administration and who seemingly `Persianised' the running of the state along the lines of the old Sasanian model. The `Abbasid Caliphate The rise of the `Abbasids was mainly due to on the one hand to the lack of popularity of the Umayyads, who were seen as a debauched, `pro-Arab' aristocracy who had little regard for the welfare of their subjects and the messianic campaign of the `Abbasids for a return of authority to the house of the Prophet or `al-rida' min al Muhammad' as they put it, on the other. The `Abbasids themselves took charge of the Islamic empire from the Umayyads with the ascension to the throne of Abu 'l-`Abbas `Abd Allah b. Muhammad (r. 132/749-136/754), commonly known as `al-Saffah' (lit. `the blood spiller') due to his merciless execution of the remaining Umayyad dignitaries. The `Abbasid Caliphate The consolidation of `Abbasid power did not lie with Abu 'l-`Abbas al-Saffah however and indeed, it was his successor Abu Ja`far Muhammad `alMansur' who succeeded in suppressing the `Alid uprisings and provided the `Abbssid state with a new epicentre, Baghdad, which would remain the state capital for more than half a century to come. The `Abbasid Caliphate Muhammad b. al-Mansur, `al-Mahdi' (r. 158/775-169/785) Due to the determination, energy, political acumen and renowned frugality of his father, al-Mahdi inherited an empire that was stable, powerful and richly endowed. Consequently, al-Mahdi is remembered as being generous in comparison with his father and he used the state's substantial wealth to improve relations with the `Alids, by offering them generous stipends and esteemed positions. Seen as a religious ruler due to his building of mosques and patronising of the pilgrimage, al-Mahdi is also remembered for his persecution of those with anti-Islamic tendencies known as zindiqs. At the political level, his reign is also a period in which the `clients' mawali continue to come to prominence and there is a continuation of the expansion of the new class of civil servants known as the `kuttab', who helped define the administration's bureaucracy. The `Abbasid Caliphate Musa b. al-Mahdi, `al-Hadi' (r. 169/785-170/789) With his reign being so short and with the sources comparing him unfavourably with his brother Harun, al-Hadi is difficult to assess yet we are given the impression that he was determined, forceful and on occasion hasty and ill-tempered. In many ways his reign was a reaction to his father's, as he reversed his policies regarding the `Alids and attempted to limit the influence of both the mawali and the kuttab. His greatest aim however was to remove his brother Harun from the succession and replace him with his own son Ja`far but his life was cut short in suspicious circumstances and considerable court intrigue. The `Abbasid Caliphate Harun b. al-Mahdi, `al-Rashid' (r. 170/789-193/809) Arguably the most famous of the Abb sid caliphs, Harun al-Rashid is well known due to his relations with Europe through Charlemagne and perhaps more so, for his apparent immortalisation in the One Thousand and One Nights. Similarly, he has a privileged in place Sunni hagiography for his frequent trips for pilgrimage and his own personal support of the jihad against Byzantium. His reign would be marked, however, by his appointment of members of the Barmakid family as his closest ministers and confidantes, who essentially administered the caliphate on his behalf for most of his reign until their untimely demise in controversial circumstances under the very same caliph. Al-Rashid's caliphate is considerably marred however by his almost na ve decision to divide power after his death between his sons Muhammad and `Abd Allah - a decision that would lead ultimately to civil war. The `Abbasid Caliphate Muhammad b. al-Rashid, `al-Amin' (r. 193/809198/813) Often portrayed as politically incompetent, reckless and somewhat debauched, al-Amin remains one of the most tragic figures in `Abbasid history. Having been denied the entire caliphate to himself by his father's will, he wasted little time in attempting to manipulate it back to his own control. His brother's steadfastness in resisting the caliph's attempt at wrestling power away from him could only have one possible outcome - a civil war. Hostilities soon ensued and culminated in a siege of Baghdad that lasted several months and destroyed great areas of the city but a more severe blow was dealt to the `Abbasid caliphate when al-Amin was executed by his brother's forces, this being the first incident of regicide during the dynasty's rule. The `Abbasid Caliphate `Abd Allah b. al-Rashid, `al-Ma'mun' (r. 198/813-218/833) After receiving the caliphate in the most inauspicious manner alMa'mun redeemed himself somewhat, by proving himself a patron of the arts through actively supporting the translation movement and the celebrated `House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma)'. Thus, he is remembered for his role in the translation of Greek, Indian and Persian works on astronomy, mathematics, medicine and philosophy, as well as his encouraging of court debates on a variety of intellectual matters. His spirit of `tolerance' was further enhanced by the fact he seemingly attempted to bridge the gap between his own family's dynasty and the rival `Alids by appointing Ali al-Rida' as his heir but this attempt proved doomed to failure. Due to his tolerant approach to `foreign' learning and `unorthodox' views he was labelled `commander of the unbelievers (amir al-kafirin)', a title which would be given further credence in the eyes of his opponents by his adoption of the `Inquisition (mihna)' - a policy, that would define his caliphate. The `Abbasid Caliphate Muhammad b. al-Rashid, `al-Mu`tasim' (r. 218/833227/842) On ascending the throne al-Mu`tasim had been requested by his brother to continue pursuing the policy of the mihna, which he did reluctantly. The one exception was of paramount significance, however, as it lives on in the pages of history, this being the trial of Ahmad b. Hanbal. Alal-Mu`tasim's reluctance to pursue the mihna is often attributed to his lack of intellectual learning but equally the caliph was occupied by a number of events during his reign, such as the revolt of Babak, the trial of his general Ashfin, mounting his offensive against Amorium, coping with the revolt of Mayzar, overcoming the Zott revolt and the transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra'. This latter move was an attempt to relocate the army which had become influenced by its Turkish contingent - a feature that would define `Abbasid politics in the years to come. The `Abbasid Caliphate Harun b. al-Mu`tasim, `al-Wathiq' (r. 227/842-232/847) In many ways the reign of al-Wathiq was also an extension of his father's, as he continued appointing Turks to key positions in the military and Bugha was one of these who distinguished himself in suppressing the various revolts of the period. Although al-Wathiq was seemingly a capable politician, he relied heavily on his two chief ministers, Muhammad b. `Abd al-Malik al-Zayyat and Ahmad b. Abu Du'ad, to the extent that he consulted them in all of his affairs. It was under this latter vizier that the mihna was vigorously pursued Ibn Abu Du'ad continued to wield power within the administration until he was defeated in a debate regarding the nature of the Qur'an and thus, the caliph seems to have withdrawn his support for the mihna policy. The `Abbasid Caliphate Ja`far b. al-Mu`tasim, `al-Mutawakkil' (r. 232/847-247/861) Despite this general period being known as a period of decline, the ascension of al-Mutawakkil began a period of relative stability for the Islamic state. It is true that the caliph began to lose his influence over the wider boundaries of the empire, due to the internal competition of his officers and bureaucrats but despite this, the state stabilised due to alMutawakkil's ending of the Mu`tazilite policy and its consequent inquisition. In addition to this, the caliph also adopted a severe policy regarding the Shi`ite elements, destroying the mausoleum of al-Husayn at Karbala'. Thus, the rule of al-Mutawakkil had a rather authoritarian flavour, as he took his dignity as a ruler very seriously. This however, was not sufficient for him to survive the devious plotting of his Turkish amirs and they eventually succeeded in assassinating him in 247/861.

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