Jewish 1) Councils Structure
1. In each community a body representing the Jews will be formed. 2. This representation of the Jews, known as the Judenrat, will consist of 12 Jews in communities with up to 10,000 inhabitants, and in communities with more than 10,000 inhabitants, of 24 Jews, drawn from the locally resident population. The Judenrat will be elected by the Jews of the community. If a member of the Judenrat leaves, a new member is to be elected immediately. 3. The Judenrat will elect a chairman and a deputy from among its members. 4. 1) After these elections, which must be completed not later than December 31, 1939, the membership of the Judenrat is to be reported to the responsible sub-district Commander (Kreishauptmann), in urban districts to the City Commander (Stadthauptmann).2) The subdistrict Commander (City Commander) will decide whether the Judenrat membership submitted to him should be approved. He may order changes in the membership. 5. It is the duty of the Judenrat through its chairman or his deputy to receive the orders of the German Administration. It is responsible for the conscientious carrying out of orders to their full extent. The directives it issues to carry out these German decrees must be obeyed by all Jews and Jewesses.
2) Jewish Councils Functions
Jewish Council formed by Germans as a way to issue orders to Jews and administer Jewish affairs. Transferred from Germany method which worked well already in Germany. Appointing group of Jews respected by community or chosen haphazardly, elders, Rabbis, public figures who would be obeyed. Germans would give orders to head of council of council and council would be responsible for implementing German orders: very soon anger of population went against their own council. Anger went at council rather than Germans. These bodies were responsible for local government in the ghetto, and stood between the Nazis and the ghetto population. They were generally composed of leaders of the Jewish community (with the exception of in the Soviet Union, where Jewish organizations were eliminated in 1930s). They were forced by the Nazis to provide Jews for use as slave labor, and to assist in the deportation of Jews to extermination camps during the Holocaust. Those who refused to follow Nazi orders or were unable to cooperate fully were frequently rounded up and shot or deported to the extermination camps themselves.
3) Similarities and Differences between various countries
In west Europe Jews were ignorant. In E Europe they knew but were starved, were like zombies. Some went to Treblinka b/c offered bread and jam, even though all knew was trick. Louis Jacobsen, 17 year old girl, wrote letter: Was imposs for girls to do anything, didn't kow much. In E, knew you would be killed, but in W, weren't sure wat was happening, wre losing surrounding familyi. In E turn to someone who's main thought is bread. Resisting was almost impos. In E didn't know where would be deported, although rumors said would be killed. This whole debate has no sense. It's true at last stage, when was clear that none of 300,000 Jews of Warsaw that disappeared were killed. When was confirmed, uprising was possible. Couldn't have anything of kind b/c of ph ysical conditions, lack of help from Poles, allies, total lack of basic weaopons, organizationi. In Vilna, Lithuania, (resist in Warsaw starts april 19 th 1943), 1943, Kauvner calls for resistance but little happens. Establishes FPO, United Partisans, yet got military leaders sent by Soviets, Witenberg, head of ghetto of Jewish council named Gens. Gens knew about attempts to organized semi-underground group in ghetto in order to be active at time of deportation. Gens didn't want fighting grop to fight outside ghetto, wanted them to fight in ghetto to help population to flee during turmoil. Gens called Wittenberg, head of paramilitary group to meeting. When Wittenberg left Gens' house was arrested by jewish police, liberated in one hour by his own people and hid in forest near Vilna ghetto. Germans said if Wittenberg not delivered in 6 hours would kill 30,000 Jews (all of them), which was very possible. Jewish population of ghetto turned against whoever belonged to underground, demanded deliever Wittenberg to Germans b/c pop would be killed. Wittenberg went and eliered himself b/c knew Jewish pop demanded he sacrifice himself. Germans allowed Jewish council in France to keep Jewish children, 1-11, in children's homes. As so could be deported at last moment, which is what happened in July 44. Children's homes raided. What did Jewish council do? Leaders of council already caught. In contrary, were not sent to work camps, but straight to Auschwitz. Were treated differently than other Jewish councils. Head of council decided to disperce children, to send them in all directions. He did that, then countermanded order, probably afraid of reaction against himself. In some situations, Jewish leadership merely thought of own safety before trying to help others. Most Jewish children deported. What is import is determination to continue to very end. Jews of Lodz are deported at very last moment when red army practically at doors of Lodz. Then massive deportation.
Only countermove is need for workers in underground factories in Germ. So at moment where remants of Eur jewry exterminanted, some jews taken out of camps, specialists, and brought back into Germ. First time since beg of war that Jewish workers brought back into Germ. Workers so mistreated by SS that died en masse or were shipped back to Auschwitz when couldn't work anymore. Was a countermove. Hungary: Crystalizes whole situation. Comes at late stage. Jews of Hungary had lived under anti-semitic laws, 800,000 Jews in Hungary (400,000 before war but then Romanian/Yugolslav provinces annexed to Hung). Those left Jews practically in peace compared to surrounding countries. Some tens of thousandths drafted to labor battalions who worked in Ukraine. But basically Hung Jewry seemed like island in midst of total destruction. On March 19 1944 Germans occupied Hungary: Reason is b/c knew that Regent Horthy, leader of Hungary, had idea to try to get in touch with allies and step out of war against Germ. On 19th March Hung taken over. Moment Germans arrived in Hung, Eichmann arrived to Budapest on that day. Germans had few people there. Could rely on Hungarian police and on Hungarian army. Hungarian police started rounding up Jews in provinces, not Budapest (left Bud for end). Brought Jews to assembly camps. Jewish council in Hungary new perfectly well what Auschwitz was, deportations were. Not only b/c two jews escaped Auschwitz and wrote a report and sent it everywhere.
4) Jewish Council Dilemmas
People faced hunger in Ghettos. Germans kept hand on amount of food to be sent in. Easy to calculate how to starve population. Ghetto is way of keeping tight grip over Jewish population mainly via police measures and food/or non food supply.
Council would be accused of not being able to find sufficient amounts of potatos (if Germans refused to let in potatos), potatos were only source of food. When potato supply isn't sufficient, Ghetoo inhabitants turn against council b/c council in charge of rationing, giving slave laborers to Germans. Some Jews paid council to be exempt from slave labor operations. Richer people could avoid slave labor by paying council, which leads to corruption, enrages inhabitants against council. Germans had forseen this. Put councils everywerhe. System worked well. Hanah Arend wrote book, Eichman in Jerusalem: she accused Jewish councils all over Europe of collaborating with Germans this is not true. She was simplistic. Councils were often corrupt, did collaborate b/c if did not they would all be shot. No choice not to serve on council. Council would be even worse after dead concil. First wave relatively courageous, second wave more submissive. Councils could not forsee what German measures would lead to: Germans demanded census of population in ghettos when Warsaw ghetto created. Census seemed unimportant, needed to supply people with food, to see who needs welfare. But moment
deportation started lists used by Germans/local police to take Jews away b/c had all info. Council ordered census in late 1939. Truth is that once Germans reacted with extreme violence, Dutch resistance tapered off. Jews were punished as well. Jewish council est in Amsterdam. Amsterdam council became council for all of Holland. In Germ was council for all of Jews in Germany. In Poland Councils from city to city. In Warsaw had 3X more Jews than in Holland. Were councils collaboraters or trying to help their people? They didn't know it would lead to final solution. Head of council told Jews not to keep weapons, to obey German orders. Head went out of way to speak as newly appointed co-chair of Jewish council demanding from workers not to oppose it in any way. What was motive? Did Germans tell him to do so? Council resp for maintaing life of comm. Would be accused of collaborating. Even found echo in historiography. Raul Hilberg, historian of Shoah, he did not make diff between jewish councils and masses of jews: his theory was that jewish history had created, b/c persecution, marginality, had created typical reactions which were not reactions of resistance, but of compliance. Tried to comply with demands with hope that compliance will allow survival. As Jews had not a chance to oppose violence done to them, they developed a sense of preemption, trying to assuage enemy by bribing, favors, paying, help. Based on idea that Jewish history brought passivity, which couldn't be changed by time got to Nazi time. Widespread theory. Unpleasant aspect is distinction between trad behavior and jewish councils. Said never made distinction between jewish leadership and masses. Spoke of historically determined attitude of passivity. Others argue that only leadership, which fooled masses by not indicating what was going on, that led, helped Germans in destruction campaign. Hillberg says it's Jewish History. Hana Arendt (Eichmann in Jerusalem) says there's a diff between Jewish council and masses. The councils are resp b/c knew what was coming and cooperated, collaborated in destruction of people. Most people did `passive resistance.' Couldn't resist militarily, but resisted by education, helping in welfare, giving solace to people, showed dignity and passive resistance. But how long could do that if you were starving? Was there dignity when die of hunger/thirst and led to gas chambers? Jewish council still didn't say anything. Used soothing speeches, say all will be OK. Said was no way of convincing Jews not to board trains, n ot to go. If we warned them, they would have gone anyway. We couldn't intervene. Maybe simply afraid of Germ retaliation against selves? Deportations to Auschwitz from provinces started on may 15, 1944. 12-15,000 Jews per day. Within weeks hundreds of thousandths of Jews processed in Auschwitz. Auschwitz
couldn't even deal with so many people. Possible to kill, but not to burn bodies. Pits would be dug in ground, corpses stacked up and burned. Even Auschwitz couldn't deal with flood of deportees. The Jewish council gave up completely. Leadership didn't dare to intervene. Jewish Council: There were some traitors, who wanted to just save own skin. Jewish Councils were scapegoated. Jews after war had to blame others, and so blamed some Jewish Council heads. Some Council members accused simply b/c was no one else to accuse. Jewish Police had many criminals. Council members were totally ordinary people placed in extraordinary situation.