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308 SOC Exam 2 Dion and Dion Cultural Perspective on Romantic Love p. 287 o romantic love based on cultural factors o Coded cultures as love present if they met one of the following criteria (4): Affirmed that RL was present (ethnographers made a distinction b/t lust and love) Ethnographic records indicated at least one case of elopement due to affection rather than other reason.... Native accounts affirmed the existence of passionate love, romantic anguish, and longing (inc. love sickness) The existence of love songs or folk stories depicting romantic involvement 147/160 of the cultures studied displayed romantic love o Mainland China 12th Century evidence was found of romantic love. o Conclusion of research in China: Love and Marriage were not opposed Love more normal Male perceptions of lust were result of Woman`s concept of beauty, intelligence, etc Conc. on quality of togetherness, man`s happiness o 4 conclusions of china and Romantic love: RL not product of Western Love existed in culture as important to attachment Attraction most important to falling in love RL not linked to Sex, but female attractiveness, etc..... o Individualism: the subordination of the goals of the collectivities to individual goals, and a sense of independence and lack of concern for others; (emphasizing rights over duties, self-realization, personal autonomy, personal initiative, and identity based on one`s personal attributes); counties include US, Australia, Great Britain, Canada, Netherlands, and New Zealand Individualism identity = personal attributes Individualistic Societies: Self-Contained individualism people may be happy/enjoy coupleness, but are less likely to get married. Negative relationship between self-interest and intimacy; getting involved for self-development; need to develop before relationship o Collectivism: a sense of harmony, interdependence, and concern for others which at core reflects the subordination of individual goals to the goals of a collective; (loyalty to the group`s interests predominates); countries include Taiwan, Thailand, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Pakistan Collectivism familial identity = interpersonal bonds (Hierarchical system) Collective societies are less likely to become divorced and place a higher importance on family unit/structure o the ideology of romantic love centers on pursuing personal fulfillment and following one`s personal wishes, even if they oppose those of one`s family and kind. This ideology is less likely to be encouraged in collectivistic as contrasted with individualistic societies o Asian backgrounds viewed love as a friendship o Cultural Individualism & collectivism Both individualism and collectivism are dimensions of cultural variation, which contribute to understanding romantic love Societal individualism and societal collectivism are revealed by cultural comparisons, whereas psychological individualism and psychological collectivism are manifested by individual differences within a given society. The ideology of romantic love is less likely to be encouraged in collectivistic societies Collectivistic Asian societies would marry someone, even if they were not in love if they contained all the qualities they desired (does Western = Individualistic societies? no) Romantic love as the basis for marriage is more important in individualist societies Psychological Individualism & Collectivism o "Psychological individualism and psychological collectivism refer to individualism and collectivism at the personal level, as contrasted with the societal one o psychological individuals can be found in collectivistic societies and psychological collectivists can be found in individualistic societies o in individualistic societies romantic love is valued as an important basis for marriage; and the ideology of romantic love contributes to expecting a high degree of personal fulfillment in marriage o in collectivistic societies, romantic love is less likely to be valued as a basis for marriage; at the psychological level, collectivism facilitates intimacy within the group, but this intimacy is likely to be expressed in a complex system of family relationships individuals scoring high in self-actualization reported a more gratifying love experience than did those scoring low on this measure. They also tended to report their experience of love as being less guarded and more intense. Selfactualization people seemed to enjoy the experience of being in love more (the other seemed to care more about their partner though) o Psychological individualism, specifically self-contained individualism was related to a less positive attitude toward marriage (love as a game) o Psychological individualism = less positive attitude toward marriage o Psychological collectivism = less favorable attitude toward divorce B. Ingoldsby Mate Selection and Marriage Around the World p. 295 o Marriage by Capture: Typically occurred in patriarchal societies in which women were often considered property Forced into marriage b/c the man wanted her and could not afford the brideprice or obtain the permission of her parents Raids by other villages could be a method of capturing mates o Marriage by Arrangement: Most common method of mate selection Parents and relatives choose the spouse More common when kin groups are strong and important ideal match is between cross-cousins-- majority of union Economics is often the driving force, rather than love Seen as a way, typically by royals, to preserve bloodline strong, resolve political issues, and enhance wealth 4 major reasons that determine mate choice in arrangement societies: Price: the groom`s family may need to pay for the bride, with either money or labor (can also be reversed) o dowry: relieve her family of a financial burden, but wife often got to keep it such as a house o groom price: money in which he gets and spends it the way he would like; sometimes a direct exchange o compensate family of the bride for the loss of her services o 62% of societies o often exceeds one`s annual income Social Status: the reputation of the family from which the spouse for one=s child will come is very important Continuous marriage arrangement: set pattern for mate selection, which is carried on from generation to generation (ex. cousin marriages) tradition Sororate and Levirate arrangements: refer to second marriages and tend to be based on bride price obligations (economic transition) o Sororate a sister replaces a deceased wife o Levirate husband dies, his wife must be married to a brother of the deceased man Ideal match is between cross cousins, where a majority of all unions fall Unmarried men will often swap unpromised sisters o Free-Choice Mate Selection: Exists where the basic family unit is nuclear; both romantic love and free choice are more common Kin groups are not important enough to see marriage as needing to be controlled Although there are free choices, (3) general regulations apply: Exogamy: a person must marry outside his/her group; certain relatives are unavailable Endogamy: a person must marry within his/her group; similar in religion, race/ethnic, social class, and age Propinquity (geographical nearness) impossible to marry someone who lives so far away from you that you never meet Lectures on Love and Arranged Marriage o Why have arranged marriages been so popular/historically abundant? Economic factors, tradition, etc Arranged Marriages Major Objectives o the welfare of family/kin are superior o family provides economic & social security for the old and ill o physical beauty and attraction are relatively inferior to the evidence of health and personality o values are highly placed in chastity; marriage is an ideal, a duty, an obligation o marriage is a social determination (group identity is more important) o social status and hierarchies are important o price-mechanism of marriage o Bride Price: is arranged by how much the family is losing financially when she marries Dowry: what the burden becomes on the man`s family to take her on, and the relief on the brides family must be accounted for Controls marriage after one dies: o Sororate: Latin if the wife dies, the brides family has to provide a new wife to the husband, usually a sister; o Levirate: if husband dies, she has to marry one of his brothers. She is always in a position of status and close to her children (economic and family factors) o Keeps the same family to raise children Eropa/Igba (Nigerian tribes): o Eropa: younger woman marries older woman to get her children o Igba: daughter marries father so her children are his sons Japanese: Who is the happiest of all (love or arranged)? For men, marriage of love matches or arranged marriages didn`t determine happiness both happy. But women were far happier in love matches than in arranged marriages. More women are having affairs today, b/c don`t have courage to divorce. The divorce rate is low, but the work place encourages male infidelity. China: Steady change from Arranged Marriage to Free Choice Marriage in China. Communism bolstered the breakdown of arranged marriage supported romantic love for marriage. India: Xu and Whyte (1990) Sprecher and Chandak: (mostly Indians, Hindu) 53% had arranged marriages; 33% were allowed to have love matches Arranged marriages Advantages: o Support from Families o Quality and stability of marriage o Compatible/desirable background (caste, religion, social classes) o Learning adjustment in marriage o Happiness of parents and family o Approval by society o Ease of meeting a partner o Excitement of the unknown o Parents know best Disadvantages: o Not knowing each other o Problems with dowry o Incompatibility ad unhappiness o Limited choice o Family/In-Law problems Dating and Love marriages Advantages: o Getting to know the other o Stimulation and fun o Socialization concerning the opposite sex o Broadening outlook o Sex o Love and Romanticism o Freedom of choice o Leads to a good choice Disadvantages: o Sex, Pregnancy, and immoral behavior o Disapproval by parents o Cause anguish o Short-lived o Disapproval by society o Neg. effect on studies o Waste of time and $ o Bad reputation o Risky o Immaturity o Most important traits in selecting mates across societies throughout the world (for men and women): Mutual attraction Love Dependable character Emotional Stability and maturity Pleasing disposition... o Many similarities b/t men and women! (Society also has semi-arranged-marriages` now.) W. Jankowiak Romantic Passion in the People Republic of China p. 299 o Chinese do not list romance as a criterion for marriage o love was not an end in itself but a by-product of marriage o feel the younger generations willingness to lose themselves in the love quest is silly and counterproductive to the interests of society and its own ideals o Care more about their bodies than emotions o Chinese are Situation oriented; in contrast to how Western societies are individually oriented o Men define themselves by whatever role they take in the relationship o Romantic and Passionate love has (3) components: Idealization of the other Its occurrence within an erotic context Expectation of enduring into the future o Master-concubine relationships were common o concubine: based on patterns of romantic love than in the case of a wife chosen by someone else; the relationship exceeds husband and wife o Contemporary and Imperial Chinese literature idealize romantic involvement o Chinese folk tales emphasis companionship and enduring love; contemporary focuses on individual stories o State legally endorsed free choice and love as a basis for marriage o Chinese men, like American men, fall in love more quickly than women o Four most important facts about china and love: Western ideals have influenced contemporary notions of romantic love, but Chinese romantic love is NOT the product of Westernization The attraction phase of falling in love that holds the most importance, as indicated by literature, TV, and personal accounts men value beauty; Attraction is the measure of the involvement (women`s attitudes reveal more an emphasis on doing things together) (although the Chinese define love as an enduring attachment it is the attraction phase of falling in love that holds the most interest) There are two dating styles in china: (differ in public expression but not necessarily the intenseness of the involvement) Formal: Public; emphasizes normative rules, social judgments, and controversial standards for articulating romantic involvement; semi-ritualistic sequence usually resulting in marriage Informal: Not in public; conducted by individuals who truly love one another but are restricted by prior obligations Although the society has perspective-mate criteria, it quickly disappears when they discuss the meaning and value they place in the ideal of love o abandonment of a lover is often worse than a divorce Chinese customs are different, you cannot run around but rather stay with one girl, contrary to Americans o throughout China`s post-revolutionary period marriage required parental approval. By the 1980's, it began to change by expanding the customary notions of courtship; demands for emotional satisfaction within marriage; marriage is now to achieve happiness, contentment, and emotional security (free choice is new- embraced by younger generations) Wilson and Jacobson White Attitudes Towards Black and White o In US, 2% interracial; of this <1% black and white marriages (lowest of all other countries) o History Until 1967, when the S.C. declared it unconstitutional, most states had laws against interracial marriages As negative attitudes toward black-white marriages have decreased, the rate of intermarriage is increasing In 1968 Gallup poll, the US approval rate of interracial marriages was the lowest compared to 10 other various countries Mixed marriages have been and still are somewhat taboo In 1988, .018 % of all marriages were interracial o the most common definition classifying a Negro who any person of one-eighth or more of Negro blood- or appearance o the court argued that the 14th amendment guarantees freedom of choice to marry without restrictions of racial discrimination (June 12, 1967) o as negative attitudes towards black-white marriages have decreased, the rate of intermarriage is increasing o the number of black husbands and white wives is almost double that of black wives and white husbands social pressures may cause: lose jobs; not achieve high status jobs o Has always existed in the lower class o treatment of interracial couples depends on the social status and social mobility of the couple. o only 20% of US approved of interracial marriage, 72% disapproved o barriers have lessened students who attend college have a more liberal attitude which accepts intermarriage more o Demographic Characteristics: Religion: the more religious the person, the more intolerant towards interracial marriage Age: intermarriage are mostly among the third generation and the youngest adult members of each ethnic group; younger people are expected to be more tolerant towards interracial marriage than older people Gender: Males are generally expected to be more tolerant than females of interracial marriages- myth of black men wanting to rape white women, parents influence their children of whom they will marry and parents provide less support to daughters than sons when the children consider whom they will marry Social class: marriages involve an exchange of black males high social status and low racial status for white woman high racial status but low social status; interracial couple would feel more comfortable in a ghetto than in a white setting Occupational prestige: those with higher-prestige occupations to be more tolerant of interracial marriage than those in lower-prestige occupational levels Education: those with average or above average education are more tolerant o No significant gender differences were found o Interracial contact is probably the most effective technique for reducing prejudice; support by local norms 66% of religious groups oppose laws prohibiting interracial marriages; however, the more strongly religious a person, the more likely they are to support such laws More likely to approve of interracial marriage: young, professional of business occupations, upper class, college educated, and without strong religious convictions (not income). Males are expected to be more tolerant than females of interracial marriage for two reasons. o Myth/stereotype exists that all black men want to have sex with white women. o Parents influence their children: they provide less support to daughters than sons in interracial marriages. As interracial marriages increase, acceptance will increase ("contact hypothesis") by: o interracial contact o Absence of interracial competition for scare resources o equal status for member of both races o firm support from relevant authorities Lecture on Interracial Marriages: Intermarriage (Theory and Reality) o Intermarriage religion, ethnicity, race o Most common marry those of same ethnicity, then religion, and then race o Why are sociologists interested in intermarry? Does it have an impact on society? Indicator of changing social boundaries and describes what they are Indicator of social distance between social groups power/status Indicator of an emerging new culture and a demise of the old ASSIMILATION! Increased tolerance. More tolerant of differences o Group Identity/Traditions: Assimilation (Gordon 1964) Assimilation: How groups became so similar to each other, their differences are irrelevant Acculturation: changing of traditions and behaviors Structural assimilation: admission into institutions (school, work) Marital assimilation: marrying across groups o Group Status, Power, and Position: Social Exchange theory of marriage: Social stratification and power hierarchies are maintained through marriage To maintain or better one`s social position, one acquires the highest status spouse Intermarriage across group boundaries results from similar motivation groups are defined by their status o Interracial Marriage Statistics (percentages): In 2000, 1.46 million interracial marriages 363,000 were between black/whites 70% were black males and white females 29% were black women and white males twice as frequent among blacks who have completed post graduate degree percent of interracial marriages in US: 2%; b/t blacks and whites < 1% US has lowest % of interracial marriages o Who marries who? Black/white couples White/Asian couples 28% (black female w/ 72% (Asian female w/ Minority female w/ white male) white male) majority male 72% (black male w/ 28% (Asian male w/ Minority male w/ white female) white female) majority female Egon Mayer Two Can Make a Revolution p. 341 o Beginning: story about Vietnamese/Jewish people planning a Bar Mitzvah (Josephine Tu (formerly Ngoc Suong Tu; Vietnamese Buddhist who converted to Judaism) and Paul Steinman. o Josephine observed that one of her deeply felt reasons for wanting to become Jewish was her Vietnamese heritage that obliges a married woman to join her fate entirely on her husband and his wife, thus her conversion was a traditional wifely obligation o Blending cultures in Bar Mitzvah o The irony of the Bar Mitzvah and the marriage and the immigration to Israel all point to the historical tension between love and tradition; between the drive of the individual for self-expression and fulfillment and his affinity for the norms and values of his heritage o The potential of two individuals to make a revolution is realized through love o No experience of falling involve exists without the transgression of a differences, falling in love challenges institutions on the level of their fundamental values; whereas love unites, tradition divides o Sandor, an Orthodox Jew, fell in love with Irene, a Christian, and joined the Communist party after his abandonment of Orthodoxy; they later immigrated to Israel in which Irene never converted o social identity or group background of the beloved has no place in the emotional calculus of the loving relationship, nor should it have a role to play in the organization and quality of the marriage that ensues from loving o heritages, traditions, cultural memories, and group identities of individuals who fall in love and marry do continue to play a significant role in the individuals; self-concepts and also in the life-styles of their families (love is the spark, but real transformation occurs precisely when the energy of love harnesses is and integrated in the flux of established situations: the family, religion, the state, and the community) o joining of romantic passion, sensuous enjoyment, friendship and marriage took nearly 2,000 years to evolve to its modern form o Single-hood was as much frowned upon in the ancient Jewish tradition as it was in the ancient Greek and Roman traditions; even in colonial America o a son or daughter might be granted veto power by a permissive parent over a particular choice o 18th century people started to pay more attention to inner feelings than outward considerations such as property and parental wishes o feudal west: Acourt Jews were beginning to enter intimate political and economic arrangements with dukes and princes in Germany. In order to preserve the populations of certain minorities, some people do not approve of interracial marriage (Jewish) o romanticism followed close to the American and French Revolutions 18th century (the right to live, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness) o The Melting Pot by Zangwill and dedicated to President Roosevelt o what would ultimately make America a true amalgam was to be a universal human emotion love; contact with different ethnic groups would lead to acculturation (borrowing a custom) o assimilation: language, education, political and economic aspirations, marriage o revolutions of Feb and March 1848 led to a new relationship between Jews and Christians Jews much more accepted, BUT the Nazi rise to power and the passage of the draconian Nuremberg Laws that forbade marriage between Jews and Christians; endogamy doesn`t matter anymore for these citizens o Eastern European: lived a Eastern European Jewry until the first decades of the 20 th century although there was a clear social barrier between these Jews and Christians, some would elope in the West so they wouldn`t have to face opposing social norms not any more frequent at the end of the 19th century than the first decades of the 20th century less common than Western Jewry (marriages) the descendants of the Eastern European immigrants (80% of the total American Jewish population) to catch up in their rate of mixed marriage with those of their brethren in America and Western Europe who had been modernized in the 18th and 19th centuries o trend of marriage between Jews and non-Jews is clearly going up 1900-1920: 2% 1966-1971: 31.7% if marital assimilation fully takes place, the minority group loses its ethnic identity in the larger host or core society (at this rate there will be only 10,000 Jews by the year 2076) by 1970, with theses stats, the Catholic Church no longer required in such marriages that the non-Catholic partner promise to raise the children as Catholics- much less convert to Catholicism ethnic groups ties continued to play a powerful role in shaping the residential as well as friendship preferences of people long after ethnicity has been declared irrelevant in American life by the conventional wisdom the bar mitzvah with the Vietnamese flavor simultaneously speaks to the persistence of an unalloyed attachment to the traditions of those cultures why has the trend toward intermarriage not been accompanied by comparable trend of misidentification from the Jewish people? the rate of conversion into Judaism during the past 30 years has increased by 300% couple`s traditions that the new amalgam would not betray traces of its origins o But love, like any other revolutionary force, can only transform people or social institutions if it is harnessed in some kind of ongoing collective enterprise such as marriage o No experience of falling in love exist without the transgression of a difference o Love unites, tradition divides. Tradition inspires conformity, just as surely as love inspires inventiveness o Love is the only spark that may start a revolution. Real social transformation occurs when love`s energy is harnessed into established institutions: the family, religion, the state, and the community. The far-reaching consequences of love is a real revolution o Historical View: Marriage is a moral duty and social responsibility, usually arranged, and not interracial o It took several revolution and two centuries to replace traditional restraints upon marriage with romantic idealism o Some people however, view love as more important than tradition o Lots of interracial couples want to integrate their cultures, rather than dismiss their heritages o Along with an increase in intermarriage, so has the rate of conversion to Judaism increased o The melting pot of America should allow for people to add in their own individual spices, without betraying their heritage o Our society is freer than any society has ever been in history, but at the same time, that freedom impels many to stayed tied with empirical traditions J. Lessinger Asian Indian Marriages... Arranged, Semi-Arranged, or Based on Love? o The continued Indian immigrant preoccupation with female chastity is partly an effort to keep women subordinated and party an effort to maintain an important cultural distinction between the Americans. o Indian parents in the US have the option of seeking brides or grooms from India reinforce ties with family and friends (not hard because of popularity of migration) o norm in India: arranged marriages prevail; large dowries Arranged marriage stems from a cultural concern with family unity and family cooperation. second generation immigrants reject arranged marriages many submit to having parents guide their choices or choose for them some actually view arranged marriages positively, in preference to the possible heartbreak and rejection involved in American-style dating divorce is shameful, therefore rely on older people to investigate potential spouses Background in mates is just as important as personality; they believe love will follow if they personality and qualities are there They are not cold or loveless, or any more likely to fail than any other marriages o arranged marriages: newspaper ads or marriage brokers broaden the pool of candidates traditionally: same caste, same region of India, same socio-economic status, moderately attractive (now no bars with religion, caste, or language group) young men are still expected to have employment aspects and young women to have families willing to give good dowries stress now more on sense of humor, interests, physical fitness (adaptive response to American life) o semi-arranged marriage: intended to retain parental control while accommodating the youthful yearning for romantic love which is fed by both Indian and American media. urban upper-middle class these families pre-screen young men and women who are then allowed a courtship period during which to decide whether they like each other well enough to get married different from American-style dating in that parents are involved, courtship much shorter, little or no premarital sex, reason for meeting is marriage o American-bred prefer people like themselves social adaptations Green card marriages exist for Indian in exchange for dowries or houses; can fail after citizenship is established (green card take the place of a dowry) Indian immigrants and their children agree that it is important to marry and have children. Some future Indian Americans generations opt for the variety of suitors available to them now, while some remain traditional. o Some Indian men in America still prefer traditionalized Indian women o Some Indian women in America prefer men socialized in America o Dr. Shirazi`s lecture on women of pre-Islam compared to the Islamic era o Interested in gender studies & relationships. o Brief History of Islam: Islam is a modern religion, about 620 years gap between Islam and Christianity. Born in Saudi Arabia before this, people were Jewish, Christian, Pagan. So stories of other religions were not foreign to Muslims. In fact, Islam is seen as a continuation of other religions. Holy readings of Muslims Quran or Koran In Koran, have history up to the birth of Jesus. In Islam/Musilms, Jesus is regarded as a special prophet, not a Son of God, or God himself, or has any relationship to the birth of death of God. But Jesus is a very respected prophet, like Muhammad. (believe Muhammad was last prophet) Only one god, Allah he was not born, cannot give birth, will not die, everlasting 5 times a day Muslims pray that there is no God, but the God (God=Ala in Arabic), He is not born, he cannot give birth, he is everlasting. This is contradictory to what Jesus represents in Christianity. Islam was created from a disappointment in Christianity and believing that God called on a new prophecy. For Christians, Jesus is miracle. For Islam, it is not Mohammad; it is the scripture that was handed down from Angel Gabriel, to an illiterate translator. The miracle is having a regular illiterate man copying the words of God. The miracle was the Koran. Koran is general guideline on how to live Hadith means stories. In order to have Islamic law, need Koran and how prophet lead his personal life and his people, the Hadith. The Hadith is supposed to show people how to live their lives by example. (The prophet was the best of people) Sharia: Islamic law; combination of Koran and hadith There are different Sharia in different societies (different traditions, etc). Difference in interpretations in society, different Customary Laws`. (The Sharia of Saudi Arabia is different than the Sharia in Iraq) It`s the same religion, same God, but the different sets of people and ways of life determine he laws of the land, (Like the different denominations of Christianity) o Women in Islam: Most cultures in world are Patriarchic, but religion says we are created equal. Not even going by the rules of Christianity. (Few woman CEOs, no women presidents) Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc, have had elected female presidents...hmmm.... it`s not the fault of the religion. There are gender differences in the Koran that indicate separate roles. These roles are largely biologically determined (Men cannot give birth) In Koran, women and men are created equally from the single breath of God. It is the culture that messes up the equality between men and women; in the eyes of God, we are equal. In Christianity, women are created from a rib of man. o Woman in time of the prophet: Jahilia: Ignorance. References to the pagans, and pre-Islamic religion (superstitions and worshipping of Idols) Women of Jahilia had more rights in comparison with the woman of Islam. The most important law in any religion is family status law custody, inheritance, property, etc (can be religious of secular). The harm of the family status law is always bad. In Jahilia system, it was a tribal culture. (cultures never die, religion will be inherited through culture) Marriage system: customary monogamy, also woman could have multiple husbands (woman determined who father was), also temporary marriages set for the merchants, travelers, and soldiers (like a sailors life- but with more legality of children), Divorce was not allowed, just had to hit and run (could try to get away from husbands family fast enough back to her tribe). If man died, woman would be divorced b/c of death but she belonged to the man`s family, she would go the step-sons, then to the brother of the husband, like a piece of property. (BUT no actual system of divorce, family wanted her because she was attractive due to $ and property) o Woman in the time of Islam: After Islam, marriage became a legal document. Meher: the money or the property that a wife will have to have in her contract, even if get divorced, money stays with woman. It`s like a bridal gift, her money that is untouchable, has to have a cash value. Jahiza: bridal shower or gifts that people give to you; shared usage w/ husband. Not obligatory like Meher is. Marriage should have 4 witnesses. Woman should be very specific/careful in their marriage contracts, like a prenuptial. Can put numerous conditions in contract (at the end in blank sheets). Religious law protects woman who learn and know about rights. If contract is broken, then that is reason for a legal divorce. However, culture can get in the way of this because women are taught to be shy and undemanding by parents. Inheritance: unless stated in a contract, males inheritance is double the woman`s, because a man has to take care of another family and the woman gets Meher` to take care of her. Any money that a woman earns, even when married, is hers to keep. She has no obligation to share money, property, or inheritance. Woman can by property in only her name. Woman can travel and will be known entire life by her maiden name (unless called by Mrs.). Degrees and passports are the woman`s. What we hear about Islam is from the customary laws, not the religious laws. Marriage and Divorce are allowed in Koran, but it does encourage people to work it out. Pasternak, Ember and Ember culture channels sexuality o Men fear sex with their wives if they steal her from an enemy village o Men also fear sex b/c they are afraid that women`s menstrual blood can kill him o childhood sexuality childhood sexuality in many societies is tolerated and open Aymara of Peru: considered normal, natural, and pleasurable from young age, aware of adult sexuality from sleeping with parents virginity had no special value; had sexual experience before puberty Cubeo Indians Experience mild homosexual eroticism as children (not really homosexual, just fondling) Some societies completely disapproved of sexual contact as children--more of an evil! Punished children if found masturbating Some societies were tolerant of sexual behavior b/t children and adults Thai mothers tickled their son's genital Kogi of Columbia o Mothers taught their sons how to masturbate by tickling their genitals to make them sleep o Kogi fathers condemned masturbation b/c they thought it endangered the father`s health Truk of the South Pacific o Were tolerant of Older men and young girls o Children couldn`t masturbate-- were punished o Heterosexual activity and masturbation made people sick Societies in which children were allowed to express their sexuality before puberty were more tolerant of premarital and extramarital intercourse Even in most liberal societies, Incest is still frowned upon o Heterosexuality in adolescence Kikuyu of Kenya Before puberty, premarital fondling was allowed as long as no intercourse Didn`t have to worry about pregnancy Trobriand Islanders Girls were expected to have lots of sex with lots of villages However, little premarital pregnancy b/c girls got married so soon after puberty They did not know that sex was related to pregnancy Tikopia of the Pacific Allowed masturbation, however, they thought it made the hands unclean Truk Had to master the art of writing love letters Women had control of relationships b/c if the man was unsatisfactory, she could publicize their love letters to his discomfort; women have more control b/c of letters, and the importance of the female orgasm. If a woman answers a love letter pretty much means agreeing on sex Very important to satisfy both partners female orgasm very important China Valued premarital chastity and wifely fidelity after marriage Muslim Muslim societies also valued virginity Customary to display bloody sheets after wedding night Most societies allow for premarital sex for one or both sexes (ex. Trukese, Kiuku of Kenya) If they do have restraints, more for premarital sex than extramarital sex (ex: Trobiand Islander) If rules differ for men and women, usually males have more freedom o o o Kimam of New Guinea Child birth very important Husband can divorce or murder wife if she aborts her child Conceiving or giving birth not a sufficient reason to claim right of parenthood must take care of child! Kenuzi Nubians of Egypt`s Nile R. Control of women`s sexuality begins early (age 3 or 4) Remove clitoris, seal vagina guarantees virginity at marriage Only have sex with husband; to insure she doesn`t have sex with others, husbands may sew up wife`s vaginas during long absences. Can kill wife if he suspects infidelity Sons are very import to continue family line; pressure by society to remarry if wife bears no sons Societies in which property is passed down through males and where they live near husband`s parents, premarital pregnancy is disapproved Unmarried women with a child leads to social and economic disadvantages Societies in which property passed through wife and live near wife`s family, illegitimate children have access to resources Societies with dowry also restrictive of premarital sex Societies with little premarital sex tend to have arranged marriages Homosexuality Less is known about female homosexuality and less tolerant of female homosexuality in comparison to male homosexuality If permits homosexuality in adolescence, usually tolerant of homosexuality in adulthood In some societies, boys experience mandatory homosexuality during a phase of life cycle Initiation rights of adolescent boys However, in adulthood, they still love/marry women Some societies view homosexual experience vital to their growth These homosexual experiences are usually older men and boys When children reach the age in which they can begin reproducing, they are expected to be heterosexual Very few societies prefer homosexuality over heterosexuality Some societies condemn homosexuality Some societies in which there are limited resources are more likely to tolerate male homosexuality Societies which forbid abortion disapprove of homosexuality Mentorship homosexuality (older men and young boys) has more to do with control than homosexual desires societal reasons for its existence Societies that restrict premarital sex are also likely to restrict extramarital sex (ex. Kenuzi (Egypt)) In general, societies that are based on dowry, political hierarchies, and class stratification are more likely to restrict premartial and extramarital relationships. S. Murray and W. Roscoe conclusion p.387 gender and homosexuality in Muslim societies There is a disagreement whether sexual relationships with men is harmful to the development of the masculinity of those penetrated The pleasure of the man is and was the reason why adult men have sex with boys. The cultural basis for desiring boys is their beauty, not masculinity In Islamic societies, being inseminated as a boy is a hindrance, if not always a bar, to obtaining adult masculinity The boy in such sexual exchanges is feminized The suitors never express any interest in providing pleasure for anyone but himself They saw the boys as manipulative and fickle treated them like the Greeks and Romans treated slaves Muslim fathers have been unconcerned with their son`s sexual receptivity and often assisted with their availability (to older men) Muslim men would make non-believing boys submit to acts of sex in order to show the superiority of Islam There is a difference between sexually receptive men and sexually used boys Some pretty boys graduate to being husbands and fathers, but in the native view others are faded to continue being penetrated by men With Females segregated, young effeminate males, available for penetration were tacitly accepted but not discussed Turkey is the only Islamic society with open gay/lesbian liberation (Homosexual men considered real men) The Islamic tolerance of the above actions depends on whether of not it interferes with family responsibilities They must consider the Koran for homosexuality tolerance Loving without touching remains the ideal, even for men Boys distract men from focusing on God, and what he said to his prophets (Koran) Men prefer boys over women They reason why men mess with boys` is because girl`s virginity is important to preserve before marriage Man-boy love is predictable from a few variables: o Male-dominated society o Large lower class o Seclusion of women o Decentralized political system o Absence of a formal education "Situational homosexuality" emerged in the military to create strong leaders, but not dynasties The emergence of modern homosexuality may best be characterized as a breakdown of these tradition distinctions between status-differentiated and gender-variant patterns, rather than a break with them Modern Western homosexual patterns such as sexual labeling practices, the popular belief that homosexuality is a character trait, the association of non-masculinity with homosexual desire, and the possibility of urban networks or subcultures, were present in historical Islamic societies

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