[Writing Algozzine Handout] Overview of Professional Writing
2006
Writing a thesis or dissertation (or documents related to them) requires a specific writing style. The goal is to provide to an accurate, error-free written representation of your research. Much like writing an article for publication, there are some guidelines to follow when preparing a thesis or dissertation. Suggestions for ways to make general points, discuss the research of others, describe studies in detail, and refer to authors are illustrated in this overview; a few general writing tips are also provided. These aspects of professional writing pertain mostly to sections of a thesis or dissertation referred to as the "literature review." They may also be useful when preparing introductory material, describing the method, and/or discussing conclusions, limitations, and future research. Some independent assignments designed to help you build a working collection of useful written products are provided in the final section, "Help Yourself To Better Writing." Making General Points There are many ways to make general points without going into specific studies or listing each bit of evidence separately. Use the following constructions (or similar ones) to make general points. It is widely known that ... (references in alphabetical order). ... is widely supported (references in alphabetical order). ... is widely recognized (references in alphabetical order). It has been well documented that ... (references in alphabetical order). ... has been well documented (references in alphabetical order). Considerable research has been completed illustrating that ... (references in alphabetical order). Discussing Research of Others Introduce summary information using variants of general statements of authority. Avoid introducing general statements by writing, "A review of the literature revealed..." It is redundant since what you are doing is reporting "a review of the literature." Also, avoid usage that can be troublesome to defend. For example, it is better to introduce findings with a statement such as, "Only two studies have been reported that ..." rather than, "Only two studies were found that ..." The assumption is that you have done a thorough review and suggesting that you may not have is simply not a good idea. When discussing the work of others, integration is better than enumeration. Considerable evidence suggests that ... For example, Algozzine (date) found that... In a similar study, Algozzine and Algozzine (date) documented ... Finally, the same general findings were evident in a series of studies conducted in elementary special education classrooms (Algozzine, Algozzine, and Algozzine, date; Algozzine & Flowers, data; Roberts, date). Several authors have found that ... For example, Algozzine (date)... The work of Algozzine (date) and Flowers (date) clearly illustrates that ... According to Algozzine (date), Flowers (date), and Lambert (date), ... Further support of ... is evident in the work of Algozzine (date) and Lambert (date). There is clear evidence of ..., including xxx (Algozzine, date), yyy (Flowers, date), and zzz (Algozzine, date; Hancock, date; Lambert, date).
Algozzine [Writing Handout: Page 2] Describing Studies in Detail
2006
Some research will be described in more detail than others because it relates more closely to your study. Introduce work such as this with a sentence (or two) that establishes the link to your research and establishes its credibility. When describing others' work, rely on paraphrase more than direct quotation. In an extensive review of the literature, Algozzine (date) documented the following areas of needed research... With regard to (key area in your research), there was clear evidence that... Algozzine (date) reviewed more than 100 studies of (key area in your research) and found that positive outcomes were more likely in research that included ... Specifically, ... In a study of 35 elementary school administrators engaged in legal disputes with parents, Testerman (date) found that... Her work included ... and several findings have direct relevance for the proposed (or current) study. First, ... Referring to Authors When reporting the work of others, you should name the author(s) in the text or mention the study, citing the author(s) in parentheses. You can also introduce the information with statements like, "Research has illustrated that ..., " or turn the information into a directing statement. Algozzine (date) found that in the 15 schools he studied teachers' morale was related to the principal's leadership style. In a study of teachers in 15 elementary schools, morale was related to leadership style of the principal (Algozzine, date). Morale of teachers has been shown to be related to principal's leadership style (Algozzine, date). As illustrated in work by Algozzine (date), the more positive the principal's leadership style, the higher the morale of teachers. Writing it Right Questions sometimes arise when deciding what verb tenses, wording, and transitions to use in a thesis or dissertation. As a general rule, consistency is a hallmark of writing the "right way." Verb tense. Generally, use the past tense to report the findings of others. Use present tense to make general statements about continuing truths, facts, or conclusions and/or for widely accepted statements, details, or information. Use future tense to describe actions to be taken. When appropriate, combine tenses to illustrate or make a point. Algozzine (date) found that morale was related to leadership style. Public attitudes toward education are improving. It is widely known that teachers' salaries are low in comparison to similar professions. More than 50 teachers will participate in this study; each will receive a survey. The role of student behavior in school-wide discipline efforts is unclear. Several researchers have found associations between compliance and selected individual characteristics. Algozzine (date) found that boys were less likely to follow instructions than girls. Others have concluded that student characteristics are less important than teacher behaviors in maintaining order in schools...
Algozzine [Writing Handout: Page 3]
2006
Wording. Avoid constructions that attribute human or qualities abilities to inanimate objects. For example, note that information is presented in a table rather than that a table shows some information since tables do not have the ability to show. Also, remember that only people-- authors, researchers, investigators, and/or writer)--think, say, find, or conclude. When you point out that someone's research supports a particular view, use the right words. Avoid saying that the research "supports" a finding; research supports positions, arguments, and conclusions. Also, avoid writing that facts have been "proven." Typically, authors report findings in efforts to indicate, suggest, or conclude something. With regard to subject verb agreement, remember that the number of the subject (i.e., singular or plural) determines the number of the verb. Be especially careful when using singulars and plurals of Latin-derived words, such as "criterion/criteria, phenomenon/phenomena, and datum/data. Words that intervene between the subject and the verb do not change the number of the verb (e.g., The data, gathered from a single site, were analyzed as evidence of consistency across classrooms.). When describing findings from other studies, try to be as precise as possible and choose words that convey your meaning. For example, "demonstrate" and "show" have about the same meaning, but "demonstrate" sounds a little more formal. "Ascertain" and "determine" have meanings that overlap, but "ascertain" has more finality, certainty, and/or formality than "determine," which conveys a dimension of settling a question. A final caution: Avoid .the tendency to elevate simple prose to the level of dogma, canon, or creed with "big words" and heavy language--Utilize is one of the most overused words in theses and dissertations. Use parallel constructions when presenting lists or sequential bits of information to make reading easier by focusing attention with the thoughtful use of language. The analysis revealed that simple changes could be made without diminishing success rates and that performance continued to improve over time. Participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, and to finish the task as quickly as possible. The following options were listed among the alternatives for successful completion of the project: (1) developing a brief literature review, (2) preparing a brief oral report, and (3) delivering an inservice presentation complete with handouts and evaluation materials.
With regard to unbiased use of language, a guiding principle is to maintain, support, and represent the value of individuals as human beings. Avoid language that equates people with characteristics or conditions (e.g., psychotics, the learning disabled). As a general rule, "people with ______," or "people who have ______" are preferred forms when referring to specific groups of individuals (e.g., people with disabilities rather than the disabled or the handicapped). Whenever possible, use "person first" language (e.g., a student with a learning disability rather than a learning disabled student). Transitions. Use sentences and paragraphs to tie together sections of your thesis or dissertation and to present your logic or arguments. Think of these transitions as road signs or clues to where your writing is going and/or where it has been. Headings and subheading can be very helpful in defining the path of your arguments, propositions, and positions. Avoid presenting heading and subheadings without a transition paragraph between them.
Algozzine [Writing Handout: Page 4] Help Yourself To Good Writing
2006
Unlike breathing, writing improves the more we do it. Here are a few tips that will hel...