FOR TEMPLATES CREATING STANDARDIZED CARTOGRAPHIC PRODUCTS FOR MONTANA COUNTY PRE-DISASTER MITIGATION PLANS
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INTRODUCTION Background This thesis represents the further development of a project conducted by The
Department of Geography of the The University of Montana for the Montana Department of Administration and the Montana Critical Infrastructure GIS Committee during 2006. The second portion of the overall project titled, Methods and Procedures for Developing Map Symbology and Cartographic Products for Emergency Management in Montana, focused on the development of map templates for use in county and Indian reservation Pre-disaster Mitigation (PDM) Plans (Appendix A). By law, counties in the United States are required to prepare PDM plans and to implement these plans as resources become available. The purpose of PDM plans is to have county Disaster and Emergency Services (DES) personnel examine county infrastructures and facilities in order to evaluate risk, identify and prioritize potential mitigation projects, and plan for response and recovery from either natural or man-made (technological/industrial) disasters. Consequently, the objectives of this research were to study the PDM plan guides, and the actual contents of numerous county PDM plans, in order to create a list of maps that might be included in the plans. This list would then be used to create map templates (example maps) that could be used by either the counties or their contractors for designing useful cartographic products for the plans. In addition to the map templates, applicable cartographic principles, data sources for building the maps, step-by-step instructions for creating them with ArcGIS 9.1, and the conceptual and theoretical bases for interpreting them were to be researched and provided in the report. By way of introduction, the larger issues related to why this work was necessary in the year 2006 need to be examined in order to properly frame the problem statement of this thesis, which concerns the development of standardized map products for PDM plans. The research conducted for the project provided the initial clues for this background information and pointed to three different sets of circumstances that had
1-2 evolved somewhat simultaneously. The convergence of these circumstances made this research necessary. The first factor was the characteristics and incredible diversity of the people and landscape of Montana and their associated vulnerabilities to the various types of hazards. The second was the development of thematic mapping, and how it has come to be used to portray and analyze man-made (technological/industrial) and natural disasters. And finally, the third was the evolution of emergency management within the United States and its implications for Montana. Each of these areas will be covered in some detail in order to provide the necessary framework. However, in order to provide the reader with some basic information regarding the terms and conventions used in this thesis, that issue will be dealt with first.
Definitions and Conventions The usage and definitions of terms such as risk, hazard, and disaster, have evolved over the years and are greatly dependent upon the perspective or occupation of the user. Similarly, the various types of risks, hazards, and disasters are categorized in a number of different ways. As an example, Keith Smith in his book Environmental Hazards, initially groups all types of hazards together under the heading of environmental hazards. He provides a working definition of the term as extreme geophysical events, biological processes and major technological accidents, characterized by concentrated releases of energy or materials, which pose a largely unexpected threat to human life and can cause significant damage to goods and the environment. Smith goes on to establish a typology, or taxonomy, for hazards and disasters that is based primarily upon the type of event. These include atmospheric (climate), hydrologic, geologic, biologic, and technologic, and are base primarily on the nature of the event providing the initial cause of the disaster.1 Conversely, various government agencies use the terms in other ways. For example, The Department of Homeland Security in the National Response Plan, uses the term incident instead of disaster, and defines it as an occurrence or event, natural or human-caused [emphasis added], that requires an emergency response to protect life or property In the same document, the definition for the term (major) disaster is based
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Smith, Keith. Environmental Hazards. (New York: Routledge, 2001) 7.
1-3 upon the level of response required. In this case, a determination is required by the President of the United States that the magnitude of the disaster is such that Federal assistance is required to supplement the response and recovery efforts of the state and local governments.2 Other government agencies, such as the Montana Emergency Services Division, discuss and assess vulnerability to hazards that occur in Montana collectively, but refer to them as being either natural or man-made.3 Therefore, it is necessary to first articulate the definitions and conventions for these critical terms as they are used in this thesis. Since the original research project was designed to serve the needs of the Disaster and Emergency Services (DES) community in Montana, the definitions and conventions will be those most commonly used by them.
Definitions Although taken from a variety of resources, the definitions listed below were found to be in common usage among the DES community in Montana.
Risk. Risk is the estimated impact that a hazard would have on people, services, facilities, and structures in a community or the likelihood of a hazard event resulting in an adverse condition that causes injury or damage. Risk may be stated in relative terms associated with the likelihood of occurrence, such as high, medium, or low. It may also be expressed in terms of potential monetary loss as a function of the intensity of the hazard.4
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. National Response Plan, December 2004. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Accessed February, 2007. Available from http://www.dhs.gov/xprepresp/committees/editorial_0566.shtm. 3 Montana Department of Disaster and Emergency Services (DES). State of Montana Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM) Plan. Accessed June, 2006. Available from http://dma.mt.gov/DES/Library/PDM/PDM-FD.asp. 4 U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Getting Started, FEMA 386-1. Federal Emergency Management Agency, State and Local Mitigation Planning How-To Guide. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., September, 2002.
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1-4 Hazard. A hazard is best viewed as a naturally occurring or human-induced process, or event, with the potential to cause damage to property or loss of human life. In general, it is a source of potential danger or adverse condition.5
Disaster. A disaster is normally considered to be a hazard that has actually happened. It may take the form of a natural catastrophe, technological accident, or human-caused event that has resulted in severe property damage, deaths, and/or multiple injuries. From the perspective of the DES community, the magnitude of the disaster would dictate the associated extent of the response and recovery efforts required.6
Conventions There are two primary conventions that must be established for this discussion. The first is associated with the categorization of disasters and the second is that portion of the disaster cycle this research is directed toward.
Categories of Disaster. In reality, most events that are classified as disasters (hazard events that have occurred) have both natural and human (man-made) components. For example, a flood may be caused by higher than normal precipitation. However, the extent of the flood damage may be exacerbated by human-caused changes to drainage patterns, deforestation, or home construction in flood prone areas. Regardless of the cause of the disaster, some convention was required in order to categorize the map templates constructed during the course of this research. To satisfy this need, the hazard related map templates are separated into the categories natural or man-made disasters.
The Disaster Cycle. The disaster cycle is normally subdivided into four major steps: preparedness (or planning), mitigation, response, and recovery. Although the map templates discussed in the section titled Templates for County Pre-disaster Mitigation
Hyndman, Donald and Hyndman, David. Natural Hazards and Disasters. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2006. 6 U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Understanding Your Risks, FEMA 386-2. Federal Emergency Management Agency, State and Local Mitigation Planning How-To Guide. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July, 2004.
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1-5 Plans may have some utility during each of the steps on the disaster cycle, their primary focus is to serve the needs of DES personnel involved in the preparedness and mitigation portions of the cycle.
Diversity in Montana Montana is a very diverse state. This diversity exists in many categories, including the areas of physical, economic, and human geography. Although detailed studies of these and other related categories of diversity are beyond the scope of this work, some critical aspects need to be examined here. Numerous books, journal articles, and other works have been compiled on these subjects. As an example, coffee table books depicting the natural wonders found in Montana, such as Glacier National Park, are relatively common in living rooms throughout the country. Another example is found in the book Roadside Geology of Montana, by David Alt and Donald Hyndman, who found it necessary to divide Montana into four distinct geological regions.7 In contrast to this, the Montana State Tourism website, http://visitmt.com/, divides the state into six separate regions because of the cultural and physical diversity found in the state.8 Likewise, the Montana Natural Heritage Program, just in the biological order of mammals, lists twenty-one different families of mammals that are found within Montana.9 However, one of the best sources of information regarding Montanas diversity and its implications resulted from a collaborative work titled The Montana Challenge that was published on the Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks website in 2005.10
Alt, David D and Hyndman, Donald W. Roadside Geology of Montana. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company, 1986. 8 Montana Official State Travel Information Site. Tourism Regions. Accessed February, 2007. Available from http://visitmt.com/. 9 Montana Natural Heritage Program. View Animal Guide. Accessed February, 2007. Available from http://nhp.nris.mt.gov/. 10 Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks. The Montana Challenge. Accessed January, 2007. Available from http://fwp.mt.gov/tmc/overview/default.html.
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1-6 A number of subject matter experts were commissioned to examine issues related to Montanas natural resources, public policies regarding their use, and to outline demographic trends in order to determine what the future holds for our state. However, when viewed in the context of the topic of this thesis, their findings also provide insights regarding some of Montanas vulnerabilities. The results of this and other works will be used to provide some insight regarding the manner is which Montana is vulnerable to natural and man-made disasters. Human Vulnerability In order to fully understand the potential risks for Montanans that are associated with natural and man-made disasters, some basic information regarding population growth and change must be examined. While Montana is the nations fourth largest state, it also one of the least populated. The U.S. Census estimated the 2005 population to be 935,670 people that are distributed over 147,046 square miles, making it one of the least densely populated states in the country. According to the U.S. Census of 2000, this data resulted in an average population density of 6.2 persons per square mile, as compared to the national average of 79.6 persons per square mile. Moreover, the situation is complicated because the population is not distributed evenly throughout the state. Of the fifty-six counties in the state, the two population extremes are Yellowstone and Petroleum Counties. Their 2004 U.S. Census population estimates were 136,717 and 492 respectively. And finally, Montana contains seven Indian reservations that encompass an area of 13,157 square miles. While not all of this land is owned by the various tribes, approximately 29,500 Native Americans live within the reservation boundaries. More importantly, when taken all together, Native Americans make up Montanas largest minority population at approximately 6.2% of the total population.11 George S. Masnick, a Senior Fellow at Harvard Universitys Joint Center for Housing Studies, and contributor to the Montana Challenge, analyzed Montanas demographic trends in this study. Masnick identified eight demographic changes, three
Montana Department of Disaster and Emergency Services (DES). State of Montana Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM) Plan. Accessed June, 2006. Available from http://dma.mt.gov/DES/Library/PDM/PDM-FD.asp.
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1-7 of which apply directly to this thesis. First of all, since 1850, the West has gained in share of the total U.S. population in every decade, and higher than average growth is projected to continue for the foreseeable future. More importantly, during the last decade of the 20th century and the first years of the 21st, the Wests eight state Mountain Division (MT-ID-WY-CO-NM-AZ-UT-NV) led the nation in percent growth. In its simplest sense, Montana will continue to gain population and subsequently have more people vulnerable to the natural and man-made disasters that occur here. Secondly, Masnicks research revealed that this population growth has not occurred evenly throughout the state. Western mountain counties in Montana have experienced high sustained growth on average in recent years, and many western counties including Flathead, Ravalli and Gallatin Counties, have experienced extremely high growth rates. Central Montana front-range counties have oscillated between positive and negative growth, and now appear to be in a slightly negative growth phase. Eastern plains counties have had sustained negative growth for the past two decades. This disparity in growth rates has been combined with the fact that the population in the West is spilling into the countryside. In Montana, the rate of growth of unincorporated and rural places during the 1990s was more than twice the rate of incorporated places. Finally, Masnick identified another future demographic trend is. Barring some dramatic increase in mortality, Montanas population is aging. This population aging trend is best demonstrated by comparing population pyramids for 1980, 1990 and 2000. For these measuring points, the age of the largest portion of the population has changed from the mid-20s in 1980, to age 35 in 1990, and age 45 in 2000.12 Another characteristic of Montanas population has to do with per capita income. According to the U.S. Census estimate for 2003, the average annual income for Montana residents was $25,920, as compared to the national average of $31,632. Because of this difference in average incomes, Montana was ranked 44th in the nation. In general, people that are more financially secure can more easily withstand the hardships, such as loss of
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Masnick, George S. Montana's Demographics. Contributor to The Montana Challenge. Accessed January, 2007, from Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks website: http://fwp.mt.gov/tmc/ overview/ default.html.
1-8 property, that are normally associated with natural or man-made disasters.13 This obviously puts many Montanans at a disadvantage, but it does not tell the whole story. Montana has also become the home, or second home, of a number of wealthy people who make additional demands on the capabilities of DES and other emergency services personnel throughout the state. As an example, a brief look at any of the real estate sales publications found around the state reveal numerous listings of multi-million dollar homes constructed in wildland-urban interface (WUI) areas. While these homes are obviously beyond the financial means of most Montanans, structures of this type are frequently more difficult to protect from fires. This is discussed in greater detail in the segment concerning wildland fires contained in the section titled Templates for County Pre-disaster Mitigation Plans. The most extreme example is that Montana will soon have the most expensive home in the world. The 53,000 square foot structure, part of a gated community in a forested area near Bozeman, Montana, contains ten bedrooms and will cost $155,000,000.14
Ecological/Biophysical Vulnerability The diversity of Montanas landscape and the resulting variety of disasters that have occurred here is also a matter of concern. The statement that Montana is often referred to as a land of extremes is given validity by some basic facts. Montana has an average elevation of approximately 3,400 feet above sea level, with a high point of 12,850 feet at Granite Peak and of low of 1,800 feet near Troy, Montana. The climate has similar extremes with the record high temperature of 117o F recorded near Glendive and a low of -70 o F at Rogers Pass, near Helena. Similarly, Montana has three distinct geographic regions: the broad, dry eastern plains, the western mountains, and the area in
Montana Department of Disaster and Emergency Services (DES). State of Montana Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM) Plan. Accessed June, 2006. Available from http://dma.mt.gov/DES/Library/ PDM/PDM-FD.asp. 14 Fox News Agency. Real Estate Mogul Plans Worlds Most Expensive House, at $155 Million. Accessed April, 2007. Available from http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,247087,00.html?sPage=fnc.business /leaders.
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1-9 between, which is often referred to as the Front Range.15 These are just a few of the variations in the landscape. The research conducted for this project revealed that because of this diversity, Montana has experienced almost every type of natural disaster of concern to DES personnel, with the primary exceptions being tsunamis and coastal storms. Similarly, Montana is susceptible to virtually every type of man-made disaster except shipwrecks for two primary reasons. First of all, many of the activities that take place within Montana bring with them various risks. These include mining, petroleum production, chemical spills, the housing of strategic missile silos, and so on. These risks are compounded by Montanas geographical location within the country. Major lines of transportation, such as highways, railroads, pipelines, and so on, pass through Montana. This transport infrastructure has inherent risks for hazardous events, such as spills of toxic materials, for items being moved through the state. The major disaster types are discussed in detail in the section titled Templates for County Pre-disaster Mitigation Plans, but the point to be emphasized here is that the people of Montana are susceptible to a wide variety of natural and man-made hazards. Summary of Vulnerability and Its Impact on PDM Planning in Montana The results of these conditions that most concern DES personnel are that Montana is developing an older population that is less self reliant than native rural Montanans and that lives in more remote areas.16 17 Associated with these concerns, conversations with various DES personnel around the state revealed two other related issues. First of all, emergency personnel recognize that they must be prepared to deal with the broadest possible range of disasters. This requires extensive training and the expenditure of oftentimes scarce resources. Secondly, and this is especially true in the less populated counties, emergency personnel are often volunteers, may work only part time, or have
Palmer, Tom. The Biophysical Landscape. Contributor to The Montana Challenge. Accessed January, 2007, from Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks website: http://fwp.mt.gov/tmc/ overview/ default.html. 16 Chief Scott Waldron, Frenchtown Rural Fire District, Frenchtown, MT. Interviewed by author September, 2006. 17 Masnick, George S. Montana's Demographics. Contributor to The Montana Challenge. Accessed January, 2007, from Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks website: http://fwp.mt.gov/tmc/ overview/ default.html.
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1-10 multiple responsibilities, some of which may not be related to emergency response. No matter how dedicated, their skill levels and availability may be inadequate. In any case, they are often performing functions that would normally be done by full time paid professionals.18 All of these vulnerability issues have a direct impact on the breadth and complexity necessary in PDM planning for Montana counties and Indian reservations. Plans must address a wide variety of potential disasters that can affect a population, dispersed in some areas and concentrated in others, that often has minimal capability of coping with disasters without assistance. Cartography and Thematic Mapping Although the use of maps and the science of cartography have developed over many centuries, thematic map products are a relatively new phenomenon. While a detailed history of cartography is beyond the scope of this project, it is important to outline some key points about thematic mapping, and its association with natural and man-made disasters, in order to demonstrate the importance of these products to the process of PDM planning.
History of Thematic Mapping One of the best histories of thematic mapping was compiled by the noted geographer, Arthur H. Robinson. Historically, maps had been used for recording the location and identity of geographical features, were guides for travelers, and so on. Thematic maps did not appear until the late seventeenth century. Improved technology during first half of the nineteenth century made possible innovations in thematic concepts and symbolism. This made the first sixty years of the nineteenth century the period of most rapid development of thematic mapping, unparalleled for at least another 100 years. Robinson defined thematic maps as a map that concentrates on showing the
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These concerns were compiled from notes taken during monthly meetings of the CISDM committee and phone conversations with Ron Knutson, DES Coordinator Hill County, Montana, during the months of January through April of 2006. Additional input came from participation in conversations and attendance at presentations during the Governors Emergency Summit Conference held in Billings, Montana, during May, 2006.
1-11 geographical occurrence and variation of a single theme.The number of themes is unlimitedincluding diseased population.19 From the literature, it appears that the association of thematic mapping with the portrayal of natural and man-made disasters did not evolve quickly. One of the first uses was to display and analyze the occurrence of a particular disease outbreak in Great Britain. This was accomplished by Dr. Alfred Havilland in Great Britain in 1892.20 Also, a more recent examination of the Map Division of the Library of Congress during research conducted by Mark Monmonier yielded few maps of hazards that were compiled before 1950. Despite this slow start, the association of thematic mapping and disasters has evolved dramatically since that time. 21 As an example, one of the first attempts by the U.S. Government to present risk information in a map format was FEMA Publication 196 that was published in 1980. This was a state by state guide that displayed areas of risk to various natural disasters and nuclear attack and was published in the latter part of the Cold War. The individual map products were much generalized and the intent was to promote preparedness on an individual level.22 However, without question, thematic cartography and its use in portraying natural and human landscapes has developed dramatically in the last few decades. Numerous text and reference books, journal articles, guides by various government agencies, and so on, are available and have been used in the development of thematic map products associated with PDM plans. Some of the more important references that were used in the construction of map templates and the enumeration of applicable cartographic principles for this research are discussed in more detail in this thesis in the section titled Cartographic Products for Pre-Disaster Mitigation Plans.
Robinson, Arthur H. Early Thematic Mapping in the History of Cartography. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982) 15. 20 Gilbert, E. W. 1958. Pioneer Maps of Health and Disease in England. The Geographical Journal, 124, (June): 172-183. 21 Monmonier, Mark. Cartographies of Disaster. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997. 22 Federal Emergency Management Agency. Risks and A Hazards: State by State Guide. FEMA Publication 196, Washington D.C.: US Govt. printing office, September 1990.
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1-12 The Science of Natural and Man-Made Disasters A detailed investigation of the latest science of each type of natural and manmade disaster that occurs in Montana is dealt with to the extent necessary in the section titled Templates for County Pre-disaster Mitigation Plans of this thesis. However, for the purposes of framing the research problem, some preliminary points must be discussed here. The first comprehensive national assessment of scientific research on natural hazards was conducted in 1972 at the Institute of Behavioral Sciences of the University of Colorado. This assessment was funded by the National Science Foundation and led by geographer Gilbert F. White and sociologist J. Eugene Haas. A complete report of the findings of this body was subsequently published by the leaders in 1975. Two important results of this assessment and the dialogue it generated are important for framing this research problem. First of all, this marked the beginning of the blending of many types of scientific disciplines in work related to hazards. Prior to this point, hazards assessment study had primarily been done within the purview of the physical scientists and engineers. Now, this area of study was expanded to formally include the social sciences and others. Secondly, the hazard assessment field of study expanded from being primarily concerned with response and recovery efforts to include studies on prevention and mitigation.23 Other types of assessments and developments were also occurring in the 1970s. One of the more important ones involved assessing the nations capability of warning its citizens of an impending nuclear attack or natural hazard.24 Another was the recognition of emergency management as a professional field of study and employment. By the end of that decade, most county and state governments had engaged professional DES personnel.25 All the while, as the population of the world increased, losses to natural and man-made disasters continued to grow, with the confirmation that hazards had become
White, Gilbert F. and Haas, Eugene J. Assessment of Research on Natural Hazards. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1975. 24 U.S. Department of Commerce. Natural Hazard Warning Systems in the United States: A Research Assessment. by Mileti, Dennis. U.S. Dept. of Commerce Publication PB-261 547. Bethesda, Maryland: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975. 25 Farazmand, Ali, Ed. Handbook of Crisis and Emergency Management. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 2001.
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1-13 more than a local or state issue. Although local planning, mitigation, and preparedness is critical, the potential extent of mega-disasters had become national and international in scope.26 27 Consequently, a second national assessment was sponsored by the National Science Foundation in the mid 1990s. Work began in 1994 and the results were published in a number of works several years later. The major thesis of one of these works, Disasters by Design, by Dennis Mileti, was losses from natural and related technological hazards-and the fact that the U.S. cannot seem to reduce them-are the consequence of narrow and short-sighted development patterns, cultural premises, and attitudes toward both the natural environment and even science and technology. This work outlined the need for an overarching management strategy, the goal of which was to reduce hazard related losses of lives and property in each of the four stages of dealing with hazards: preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery. Furthermore, implementation today relies on loss reduction activitiesfostered at the societal level but carried out locally or individually.28 Many of the results of this conference are embodied in the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 and its guidelines for pre-disaster mitigation planning that will be discussed in more detail later in this section and in the section titled Cartographic Products for Pre-Disaster Mitigation Plans.
The Development of Digital Cartography in the Hazards Field Without question, the development of digital cartography has had a tremendous impact on thematic mapping, scientific analysis of the natural and man-made landscape, and the portrayal of natural and man-made hazards. Several books and numerous articles have been published outlining the various methods and requirements for incorporating GIS into emergency management. A brief examination of the Training and Education portion of the ESRI website yielded five online courses and at least ten books that are directly related to GIS and natural or man-made disasters.29 One of the
Redlener, Irwin. Americans at Risk. New York: Random House, 2006. Bankoff, Greg, et. al., Ed. Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development, and People. Sterling, VA: Earthscan, 2004. 28 Mileti, Dennis. Disasters By Design. Washington D.C.: (Joseph Henry Press, 1999) 18. 29 ESRI Training and Education. Course Catalog. Accessed February, 2007. Available from http://training.esri.com/gateway/index.cfm.
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1-14 best is Confronting Catastrophe by R. W. Greene. Several of these GIS and emergency management references were used in the research for this project and are discussed in more detail in the section titled Cartographic Products for Pre-disaster Mitigation Plans. Likewise, numerous types of GIS software specifically designed for use in emergency management have been developed over the years. Many of them, such as Hazards, U.S. (HAZUS-MH), the Consequence Assessment Tool 6.0 (CATS), Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations (CAMEO), and others have been made available for free by various government agencies. However, there are numerous disparities in the incorporation of GIS into the world of emergency management. Geographer Mark Monmonier, when conducting research for his book Cartographies of Danger, noted that while some emergency managers embrace new technology, many depend less on maps and are obsessed with lists of whom to notify, how to respond, and so on. More importantly, when evaluating the response to a hazardous liquid spill in Marlborough, Massachusetts, he noted that paper maps were utilized even though free emergency mapping software was on hand (CAMEO). This deficiency existed primarily because of a lack of funding. Local officials could not afford to purchase the required hardware or hire the staff to implement it.30 Essentially, there is a great disparity in how GIS is utilized in the general category of emergency management. This same situation exists in a variety of ways in Montana. Conversations and interviews with DES and other personnel around Montana revealed a number of things. First of all, although almost all counties and reservations in the state use GIS for some purposes, there is little uniformity in its implementation or use. Very few have institutionalized it into a formal department, and many counties lack a formal IT department to aid in this process.31 When GIS is used actively, the problem of data availability exists. Many of the existing PDM plans reviewed for this project contained statements regarding the limitations of data availability for the county in question. And finally, even in those counties where a robust GIS capability exists, it may not be directly involved in DES activities.32 These local characteristics and cartographic (GIS) capabilities, combined with the diverse nature of hazards across the nation, have
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Monmonier, Mark. Cartographies of Danger. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1997. Bryant Ralston, ESRI Sales Representative for Montana. Interviewed by author January, 2007. 32 Douglas Burreson, GIS Supervisor, Missoula County GIS Dept. Interviewed by author January, 2007.
1-15 limited the abilities of federal regulatory agencies to establish detailed specific guidelines for PDM plans.33 More current guidelines, such as FEMAs Mitigation Plan Review, which was published in March, 2006, are similarly broad and general in character. The specific cartographic requirements of this PDM review guide are discussed in more detail in the section titled Cartographic Products for Pre-disaster Mitigation Plans.34
Thematic Mapping and Its Impact on PDM Planning in Montana The various scientific efforts related to natural and man-made hazards have developed greatly in recent decades. Likewise, the capabilities provided by GIS to develop thematic maps, perform risk analysis, identify areas for mitigation by DES personnel, and so on have improved greatly during the same time frame. The potential to make use of these advances in pre-disaster mitigation planning varies greatly in Montana for many reasons, some of which have been identified here. First of all, because of the differences in county population, available funding, and priorities across the state, there is little uniformity in how GIS has been adopted by emergency management. Secondly, the availability of detailed and accurate data hinders those involved in emergency management. And finally, as it applies to the development of PDM plans, guidelines for related cartographic products are necessarily broad.
Evolution of Emergency Management The involvement of the U.S. Government in various forms of disaster relief has existed almost since its inception. Federal troops were dispatched in 1786 to put down Shays Rebellion, an event of civil disobedience in western Massachusetts. The Congressional Act of 1803 provided disaster relief to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, which had suffered extensive fire damage. These are typical of the types of hazards that
Monmonier, Mark. Cartographies of Danger. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Understanding Your Risks, FEMA 386-2. Federal Emergency Management Agency, State and Local Mitigation Planning How-To Guide. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July, 2004
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1-16 are currently addressed in PDM plans.35 In the century that followed, federal relief was provided more than one hundred times around the nation to victims of earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes; each time with specific legislation. By the 1930s, there were a number of federal programs in existence that had disaster relief responsibilities. These included disaster loans available from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, bridge and road repair funding provided by the Bureau of Public Roads, and flood control provided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.36
Creation of the Federal Emergency Management Agency The 1960s brought massive natural disasters that required major Federal response and recovery operations. These included Hurricane Carla in 1962, Hurricane Betsy in 1965, the Alaskan earthquake in 1964, Hurricane Camille in 1969, and others. At the time, the national response was handled by the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration, which was part of the Department of Housing and Urban Development. However, federal activities in this area were too fragmented, with too many agencies involved. Concerns over this problem were the subject of a critical report published by the National Governors Association in 1978. As a result, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was established by Executive Order of President Carter in 1979. This was accomplished by consolidating seven existing disaster related programs into one agency. During the subsequent administration of President Reagan, much of the focus was on civil defense and nuclear war. However, with the end of the Cold War, FEMAs focus turned fully to natural disasters.37 FEMA was subsequently incorporated into the newly formed Department of Homeland Security in March, 2003. However, it remains focused on natural and man-made disasters.38
Montana Department of Disaster and Emergency Services (DES). State of Montana Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM) Plan. Accessed June, 2006. Available from http://dma.mt.gov/DES/Library/PDM/ PDM-FD.asp. 36 History of Federal Disaster Mitigation: Evolution of the Federal emergency Management Agency. Congressional Digest, Vol. 84 (November, 2005), 258-288. 37 Farazmand, Ali, Ed. Handbook of Crisis and Emergency Management. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 2001. 38 U.S. Department of Homeland Security. History of FEMA.. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Accessed March, 2007. Available from http://www.fema.gov/about/history.shtm.
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1-17 Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM) Plans Major changes for FEMA took place in 1993 when President Clinton nominated James L. Witt as the new director. Witt, the first director with experience as a state emergency manager, instituted major reforms. One of the most important of these was a new emphasis on preparedness and mitigation, especially at the state and local levels.39 This ultimately resulted in the passage of the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 (DMA 2000), which requires that state, local, and tribal governments prepare and adopt jurisdiction-wide hazard mitigation (PDM) plans in order to receive various types of grant funding. The DMA 2000 formalized the shift away from a reactive response and recovery approach to a new emphasis on identifying potential hazards and taking steps to minimize their impact.40 In turn, FEMA prepared an Interim Final Rule, published in 2002, which established more detailed planning and funding criteria for states, tribes, and local communities. It also gave county and tribal governments the option of preparing the PDM plans themselves or using Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) funding to have them prepared by professional contractors.41 Additionally, FEMA has published numerous How To guides (listed in the section titled Cartographic Products for Predisaster Mitigation Plans) to assist local government in the development of PDM plans as well as evaluation guides for use by FEMA personnel in their evaluation. However, none of these documents establish specific requirements for the types of cartographic products necessary for a satisfactory PDM plan.
PDM Plan Development in Montana At the time this research was conducted in 2006, all Montana counties and Indian reservations had compiled PDM plans. While some were still in the review process by FEMA, most had been approved and were actively being implemented (Figure 3-1). Some had been prepared locally while most had been prepared professionally by outside contractors. All of the PDM plans reviewed for this project contained some type of
History of Federal Disaster Mitigation: Evolution of the Federal emergency Management Agency. Disaster Mitigation Act. Public Law 106-390. Sec.322. 41 Federal Emergency Management Agency. 2002. Interim Final Rule. 44 CFR Parts 201 and 206. Hazard Mitigation Planning and Hazard Mitigation Grant Program; Federal Register 49, no. 2 (26 February, 2002).
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1-18 cartographic products. A composite analysis of these cartographic products is shown in Table 3-1. The immediate reason why this project became necessary was related to the content and types of the cartographic products inclu...