atimefactor.Therefore,theirassumptionshaveatendencytoreflecttheattitudetowardsatime APleaforTime
Innisbeginshisessaystatingthatallhistorians,includingeconomichistorians,alwaysassume periodofwhichtheywrite. Historyhastakenondifferentmeaningsanditscontentisapttoreflectaninterestinimmediate facts,suchissuggestedbythewordsallhistoryproves.Innisarguesthatasaresultofthis, historytendstoalwaysrepeatitselfbutwhatchangesaretheaccentsoftheperiodinwhichitis written. Knowledgeofthepastisthenonlyneededtoservethepresentandthefuture. Thedangerthatknowledgeofthepastmaybeneglectedtothepointthatitceasestoservethe presentandthefutureperhapsanundueobsessionwiththeimmediate,supportmyconcern aboutthedisappearanceofaninterestintime(61). Thesituationfortheeconomichistorianissomewhatdifferent.Innisarguesthateconomic historiansareinaparticularlyexposedposition.However,becauseofthisexposure,the economichistorianmayhaveastrengthenedurgetodiscoverasolutiontowardstheattitudeof time.Theeconomichistorianmustconsidertheroleoftimeortheattitudetowardstimein periodswhichheattemptstostudy,andhemaycontributetoanescapefromantiquarianism, frompresentmindedness,andfromthebogeysofstagnationandmaturity(62). Inthissense,whileInnisstatesitisimpossiblefortheeconomichistoriantoavoidthebiasof thetimeperiodinwhichhewrites,hemaybeabletopointtosomeofthedangers. Innispointsoutthatastronomicaltimeisonlyoneofseveraldifferenttypes.Socialtimefor instancehasbeendescribedasqualitativelydifferentiatedaccordingtodifferentbeliefsand customswhichareuniquetomanygroups.Innisarguesthatitistooabstractandiscompletely unsuitedtoformalprecision.Neithertimenorspaceisabstractlyconceived;timeproceedsby cyclesandisround;spaceissquare(62).Ontheotherhand,Innisarguesthatthelinear conceptoftimeismoreeffectiveandwasmadethiswayasaresultofhumanisticstudiesinthe Renaissance. InnisarguesthatinWesternCivilization,astablesocietyisdependentonanappreciationofa properbalancebetweentheconceptsofspaceandtime.Inthisregard,wemustappraise civilizationinrelationtoitsterritoryandinrelationtoitsduration(64). Innisstatesthatthemediumofcommunicationalwaystendstocreateabiasthatisfavourable eithertospaceortotime,hardlyevertoboth.Thecharacterofthemediumofcommunication tendstocreateabiasincivilizationfavourabletoanoveremphasisonthetimeconceptoron
thespaceconceptandonlyatrareintervalsarethebiasesoffsetbytheinfluenceofanother mediumandstabilityachieved(64).Innisprovidesanexample.Therewasadependenceon thepapyrusroleandtheuseofthealphabetinthebeauracrayoftheRomanEmpire.Thiswas thenoffsetbyadependenceonparchmentcodexinthechurchandabalancewasmaintained intheByzantineEmpireuntil1943. Innisoutlinesthatthatpervasivecharacterofthetimeconceptmakesitdifficulttoappreciateits natureand,furthermore,difficulttosuggestitsconservativeinfluence. Innisprovidesabriefsurveyoftheoutstandingproblemsoftimewhichmayperhapsenableus tounderstandmoreclearlythelimitationsofourcivilizationaswellasmanyoftheproblems civilizationsofthepasthaveencountered.Oneincludesthesexagesimalsystemprevalentin GreatBritainwherethemonetarysystemissexagesimal.Theadvantagesofthesexagesimal systemareevidentincalculationswhichpermitevasionoftheproblemofhandlingfractionsand havebeenexploitedeffectivelyinthedevelopmentofaviationwithitsdemandsforrapid calculation(65). Ontheotherhand,InnisusesEgyptasacounterexampletoillustratehisnextargument.The powerofabsolutekingsovertimeandspacewasreflectedinEgyptbythebuildingofthe pyramidswhichremainastandingmonumenttojustifytheirconfidence,inthedevelopmentof mummification,atributetotheircontrolovereternity,andinthebeliefinimmortality.The absolutemonarchyreflectedmonumentalarchitectureofthepyramidsandinsculptureand althoughitwasoffsetbythepowerofthepriesthoodbasedoncomplexsystemsofwritingand theuseofpapyrus,absolutismpassedwithcontrolovertimeintothehandsofthepriesthood andcheckedexpansionoverspaceintheEgyptianempire. TheemphasisofcivilizationonmeansofextendingitsdurationasinEgyptaccompaniedbya relianceonpermanencegivesthatcivilizationaprominentpositioninperiodssuchasthe presentwhentimeisoflittlesignificance(66). InnisshiftstodatingbacktothecollapseoftheempireintheWest.Thechurchsupported datingsystemsstartingfromthesupposedyearofthebirthofChrist. TheChristiansystemfollowedthatoftheRomanreligioningivingafixedyearforthebirthof Christ.Thisyearwasalsoawardedwithauniqueposition.Spreadofmonasticismandtheuse regularityinlifeoftheWest(72). ofbellstomarktheperiodsofthedayandtheplaceofreligiousservicesintroducedthe Innisarguesthatwhatcamewithallofthiswasregularity.Regularityofworkbrought administration,increaseinproduction,trade,andthegrowthofcities(72). Thestrugglebetweenchurchandstateforcontrolovertime.Therewasaweakeningofcontrol overtimebythechurchandaccompaniedwithlimitedcontrolbythestateleftavacuumwhich wasoccupiedbyindustry.Thechurch,particularlyinthemonasticorders,hadintroduceda
rigorousdivisionoftimeforservicesfollowingthespreadintheuseofclocksandbell.But industrialdemandsmeanfreshemphasisontheceaselessflowofmechanicaltime. Establishmentoftimezonesfacilitatedtheintroductionofuniformityinregions(74). Anadvanceinthestateofindustrialism,Innisargues,meantadeclineintheimportanceof biologicaltimewhichwasdeterminedbyagriculture.Newtimewouldevidentlyfollowthe industrialworld. ThepersistenceofEasterasamoveablefeastpointstotheconservativecharacteroftime arrangements(74). Abalancedcivilizationinitsconcernwiththeproblemofdurationortimeandofextentorspace isfacedwithseveraldifficulties.Intermsofduration,systemsofgovernmenthaveoftenbeen defeatedbybiology,whendynastiesfailtoprovideacontinuedstreamofgoverningcapacity andbytechnology.Intermsofspaceanddurationcombined,itappearstodependonthedual arrangementbetweenchurchandstate,wherethechurchissubordinate.(75) Innisstatesthatitisnothisgoalinthispapertodetailallthenewinventionsforthe measurementoftime,ortosuggestthepotentialimplicationsfortheseinventions. However,heisconcernedwithsocietiesobsessionwithpresentmindedness,andfurthermore thatthebalancebetweentimeandspaceandbeenseriouslydisturbedwithdisastrous consequencestoWesternCivilization(pg.76). Innisusestheexampleoprintingtoillustratehisargument.Hestatesthatprintinghas emphasizeddivisionsbetweenstatesbasedonlanguagewithoutimplyingaconcernwithtime. ForexamplehearguesthatInEuropedivisionbetweenlanguageshasbeenaccentuatedby varyingratesindevelopmentoftheprintingindustry. HefurthershisargumentbystatingthatNotonlyhasthepressaccentuatedtheimportanceof theEnglishlanguageinrelationtootherlanguages,ithasalsocreateddivisionsbetween classeswithinEnglishspeakingcountries(pg.77). Inotherwords,theprintingpressworkedtosetupalanguagehierarchyinwhichEnglishwas atthetopandallotherlanguagesfellsomewherebelow. Atthesametimeaprinintingwasincreasinginpopularity,Innisstateslargescalenewspaper plantsandeffectivedevicesforwideningmarketsfornewspapersincreasesrapidly(pg.77).* late19thcentury* Moreover,Innisthenpointstot...