Monsters Evolving In the late nineteenth century, the growth of experimental medical science transformed the American medical profession in a plethora of ways. As science and medicine began to progress in a more complex and rapid manner the image of science and scientists as "monsters" became more intricate and multifaceted. In particular, when medicine and science underwent drastic transformations during the first half of the twentieth century, the spectacular reformation caused scientific "monsters" to evolve in a surprising array of forms. This paper illuminates some of the main examples of these "monsters" in literature and critique, and how they evolved in a close interaction with their surrounding society. The novella Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde takes place in the Victorian era, an era where medical experiments were not a widely accepted practice; in the novella the "monster" created, Mr. Hyde, can be attributed to the societal constraints that were ubiquitous in the Victorian era. During the Victorian era medical experiments were practiced, however were not widely accepted as they are in the today. This lack of acceptance is shown by Jekyll's former colleague Dr. Lanyon, who labels Dr. Jekyll's most recent line of research as "unscientific balderdash."(Stevenson, p. 7) This illustrates the supernatural belief of scientific experiments during that era, which contrast powerfully with the prevailing scientific consensus of the Victorian world, in which rationalism and materialism had prevalence. Dr. Lanyon's reverence for the rational and logic in science, he emerges as the model nineteenth-century scientist, repeatedly dismissing Jekyll's mystical experiments. Later events prove that his dogmatic faith in a purely material science is more analogous to superstition than Jekyll's experiments. The Victorian value system was based largely on reputation rather than reality. This prioritization was reflected in the narrator's remarks about Utterson as well as in the characters'
own remarks about gossip and blackmail. The limitations that accompanied the Victorian value system were what ultimately drove Dr. Jekyll to look for an alternative outlet from the harsh constraints of society. Dr. Jekyll found a scapegoat to society though his scientific research--Mr. Hyde, "hence it came about that [Dr. Jekyll] concealed [his] pleasures." (Stevenson, p. 42) However, Dr. Jekyll's experiments were not in accordance with the Victorian value which was why Mr. Hyde emerged because the Victorian era values were too constricting. Dr. Jekyll comments that "[he] was the first that could plod in the public eye with a load of genial respectability, and in a moment [...] strip off these lendings and spring headlong into a sea of liberty." (Stevenson, p. 46) This emphasizes how much Dr. Jekyll felt obliged to be the model citizen in the Victorian society yet the magnitude of responsibility deemed upon him was so great that the "monster", Mr. Hyde, in him had to be released. The emergence of "scientific monsters" began in the early nineteenth century, where they were looked upon as merely mystic and radical ideals that should not be condoned. This same attitude towards "scientific monsters" such as Hyde continued on throughout medical history. The emergence of medical research focusing primarily on human subjects became a primary focus of physicians during the early 1900's. However, with this controversial medical research accompanied opposition. Not only was medical thinking at the brink of transformation during the nineteenth century but moral thinking was changing into a complex ideal. Medical experimentation at the time was a double-edged sword. This was because there was no distinct guideline of "where to draw the line between an experimental procedure and an acceptable clinical practice." (Coursepack p. 29) Furthermore, at the time there was no doctrine written for physicians or scientists to establish what was morally and socially acceptable. Thus, physicians and scientists exercised their own scrutiny, often times disregarding patients rights. As a result,
during this new era, society, journals and newspapers made physicians into "medical monsters." This common belief about physicians was made widespread by society; one such account was made by "Osler's observations on the requirements for ethical human experimentation, which echoed the opinions of many other physicians in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century's bear scrutiny." (Coursepack, p. 2) This belief that physicians practice needs to bear scrutiny was expressed by society during the 1900's. However, exactly what is considered "scrutiny" was where the root of opposition and controversy began. Opposition to these "medical monsters" was held by the majority of society because of cases such as the Yellow Fever Board, Bartholow's Mary Rafferty case, and Hideyo Noguchi's research of Syphilis. Walter Reed of the Yellow Fever Board was made out to be a "medical monster" he because offered one hundred dollars in gold to subjects who were willing to be injected with yellow fever. This case sparked controversy because it was perceived by society that Walter Reed was unethically bribing subjects into being part of this experiment. This case led to the formation of written contracts with patients, in which the contract outlines the risks as well as benefits in an experiment. The Mary Rafferty case was deemed unethical because physicians experimented on a "feeble-minded" (Coursepack p. 4) woman. Furthermore, this case initiated the "abuse of the doctor-patient relationship that ended in Mary Rafferty's death." (Coursepack p. 5) The Noguchi case provided society with more evidence that physicians are ultimately "medical monsters," who are only concerned about personal gain. "The idea that Noguchi deliberately introduced into the bodies of innocent children the germs [syphilis]-- sterilized or not--of a loathsome disease repulsed many." (Coursepack p.20) All of these cases led society to the conclusion that the majority of physicians were "medical monsters" who were not trustworthy, honest or responsible. These beliefs were made widespread in society because
society fell into false deception. It was ultimately society who made all physicians into "medical monsters" because of the double-edged sword that was prevalent in medicine. Not only were "medical monsters" created because of societal change, but much more complex monsters such as "nuclear monsters" evolved. In the movie Dr. Strangelove, Dr. Strangelove is portrayed as an iconic monster that evolved from the dominance of science during the nuclear age. "Dr. Strangelove is the film's central monster, for he embodies human-machine hybridity and other elements abjected from the liberal-democratic ideal." (Coursepack p. 41) "Dr. Strangelove emerges from the same mid-20th Century, newly atomic culture, as these more morphologically obvious monsters." (Coursepack p. 57) Dr. Strangelove resembles Mr. Hyde because they are both seen as "monsters" which have stemmed out of societal pressures. However, Dr. Strangelove was a "human-machine" monster, unique from, a traditional monster like Mr. Hyde, who was an "animal-human" monster. Although, much like Mr. Hyde, Dr. Strangelove exhibits the qualities of an outsider while constantly being judged by the surrounding society. While the belief held by society was that Dr. Strangelove was abnormal and did not fit with the ideals of the society, he was actually a microcosm of what the Cold War era believed in. Dr. Strangelove represents the "secular nuclear apocalypse in the mid-20th Century American pop culture." (Coursepack, p. 41) He represents the advancing technology of the Cold War era. Dr. Strangelove was a true cyborg--a combination of human and machine, which makes him abnormal and outside of order. The movie illustrates that human unity will ultimately fail, while mechanical purity destroys, however the only unity that will succeed will be the unity between human and machines. Dr. Strangelove exemplifies this true unity between human and machines because his dualism creates the bridge between the pursuit of human and mechanical purity. While complex
monsters such as "nuclear monsters" were created, other intricate monsters were generated however; they were kept hidden from society.
The movie The Atomic Caf is a compilation of 1960's films about what to do in case of a nuclear attack and the effects of radiation. The Atomic Caf is a review of the atomic age and the beliefs held by Americans at the time. All of these clips were combined to show how little the experts knew about atomics at the time. The monster portrayed in The Atomic Caf was the Atomic bomb. However, unlike other monsters that were portrayed during the era, the atomic bomb was a monster that the American government kept hidden. This "atomic monster" was caused by the advancing technology in society which took off at an extremely fast rate and could not be controlled. Thus, the government did not want the fear of this atomic bomb, to cause panic with the American public, so instead the government disguised this atomic bomb as a seemingly innocent monster--such as the monster that was portrayed in The Atomic Cafe.
The quest for medical and scientific knowledge by performing experiments began at a rapid pace in the late nineteenth century, fostering the growth of zealous, uncontrollable "scientific monsters"; these "monsters" eventually developed into complex ideals due to the simultaneous progress of society. The science fictions, journals and scholarly studies that were produced during the different eras played a pivotal role in developing the foundation for these fervent "monsters". The "scientific monsters" that were developed throughout the different periods in history all reflect the societal ideas and notions society held about science and scientists during the time.