Ali Notes Mazrui Director, Institute of Global Cultural Studies and Albert Schweitzer Professor in the Humanities, State University of New York at Binghamton, New York, USA Albert Luthuli Professor-at-Large, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria Ibn Khaldun Professor-at-Large, School of Islamic and Social Sciences, Leesburg, Virginia, USA the Andrew D. White Professor-at-Large Emeritus and Senior Scholar in Africana Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA.
A Garden of Eden in Decay a co-production of WETA-TV and BBC-TV 1986 When you see a man driving in a straight line along the Kampala Road .... A dessert and beverage economy Coca-Colanization Petrotiasis Ali Mazuri- Kenyan, leader in Af. Studies in America Negative ab development in Africa 25 yrs. After Ind. Petrotiasis- too much petroleum in sm. economy Modernity amongst deprivation Reasons for poor development, slow: 1) Mostly tropical climate, 2) foreign invasion 3) failure to correct after Ind. Nature: abundance- mother of inertia, why innovate when have what you need to eat, live No need for organization, technology No need for clothes b/c warm No need to plan long growin season Now dependency on imports over nature Ivory Coast attached to France Desert & Beverage economies b/c of colonialism European sweet tooth, produced @ expense of fundamental need for domestic food Must be drunk to drive straight line Kampala: best road in country is in dire repair Broken down cars, bad communications Schools in Ghana: no basic materials, slow death of civilization Western culture in Africa No jobs, so why learn? No tools to learn even
Health service absent, rely on military Double Sickness- things falling apart & failing economies dependent on outsiders Tanzania- some pts avoid outside influence Canadians cultivated pasture where men lived Now sharp contrast dual economy mechanized vs. bare subsistence Casualties of progress: pastoralists too backward lookin Canadians technology not fittin, consumption exported, used to diff soils Hurts economy Alien food habits increase dependency on other Automation of bread=less jobs Nyerere- tried to decrease dependency w/ socialism(economic exp), failed Tanzania-highest rate of education W. Africa- Nigeria Profits havent made prices ok, farming is too expensive Drought, city Lagos -plague farming Western values from TV, lots of selling goods Whites preach the dignity of labor, but dont do their own, have servants, therefore bosses of blacks act this way Islam- alcoholism=threat to work Zanzabar- Ramadan is plan gone wrong b/c hurts productivity but not consumption Slovakian port died b/c modernity Workers always leavin home b/c economies cant support Mozambique- miners, Af nomads Socialism w/o givin capitalism a chance, so damned to cheap labor Human cash crop for export? Human labor People as commodities to work for wealthy ppl/ countries
Nigeria- oil-resource but gov spent soo much Petrotasis- pollution, influx of oil in sm. economy Oil-hijacked Petrocrimes of death penalty war against indiscipline The problems of independent Africa European colonial settlement (see picture) dense at bottom (uneven)
Transitions: different depending on type of colonialism (Ghana, Tanganyika, Uganda)easier transition bc no settlers Where Europeans actually settled, transitions to Ind. w/ violence Ex. Tanzania- was tanganika, put together 2 colonies Tanga-town on coast, nyika- dry brush, Zanzibar Early 60s Independence except for places that were settled What really changes at independence? Just flag, natl anthem; bureaucrats dont leave, Europeans still run things Dilemmas facing the new nation of Tanganyika (Tanzania) Julius Nyerere "Mwalimu" The teacher - organized party to demand Ind., changed presidential salary to HS teacher, lived humbly Wikipedia: founded TANU particular vision of connecting socialism with African communal living. When in power, Nyerere implemented a socialist economic program (announced in the Arusha Declaration), establishing close ties with China, and also introduced a policy of collectivization in the country's agricultural system, known as Ujamaa or "familyhood". Although some of his policies can be characterized as socialist, Nyerere was first and foremost an African, and secondly a socialist. He was what is often called an African socialist. Nyerere had tremendous faith in rural African people and their traditional values and ways of life. He believed that life should be structured around the ujamaa, or extended family found in traditional Africa. He believed that in these traditional villages, the state of ujamaa had existed before the arrival of imperialists. All that needed to be done was to return to this state and capitalism would be forgotten. He believed that Africans were already, recently, socialists, all that they needed to do was return to their traditional mode of life and they would recapture it. This would be a true repudiation of capitalism, since his society would not rely on capitalism to exist. This ujamaa system failed to boost agricultural output and by 1976, the end of the forced collectivization program, Tanzania went from the largest exporter of agricultural products in Africa to the largest importer of agricultural products in Africa. With the realisation that the Tanzanian economy did not flourish and being unwilling to lead Tanzania using an economic model he did not believe, Nyerere willingly announced that he would retire after presidential elections in 1985, leaving the country to enter its free market era under the leadership of Ali Hassan Mwinyi. Nyerere was instrumental in putting both Ali Hassan Mwinyi and Benjamin Mkapa in power. He remained the chairman of Chama Cha Mapinduzi (ruling party) for five years In 1978 He led Tanzania into war against Uganda, then under the dictatorship of Idi Amin, resulting in the defeat of Uganda and the exile of Idi Amin.
The pressing problems of underdevelopment: 1. Wealth or Poverty 2. Education Ignorance 3. Health Disease 1. Wealth -The per capita income in 1965 was $55 -The "solution" was to attract foreign investors and mechanization -Less than 1% of the land produced more than 40% of foreign exchange -That land was owned by foreign companies and foreign individuals To raise $, attract foreign capital, flour mill, but profits go back home, expect return Cash croppin for foreign markets 1% of land 2. Education -The majority of secondary school teachers were foreigners -The curriculum is set by Great Britain -Solution -Reorient the curriculum to national needs -Push adult literacy Terminate Peace Corps as too western in ideology Only best of best educated, need to change level of demands, colonial demands were elitist, need to teach to demands of Tanzania Gov scholarship then required to serve nation, pick ppl accordin to what country needs, students refused to help nation so U closed -The university is designed and financed by foreigners (Ford Foundation, etc.) and seems unrelated to the rest of the country -Solution: government selected course of study and required national service of all graduates 3. Health -Life expectancy 1965 = 40 yrs -Mbati: one medical assistant treating 10,000 patients a year Solution ? The problem of national integration 1964 Tanganyika + Zanzibar Tanzania Zanzibar (island off the coast) No one was unified, didnt see themselves as pt. of nation, ethnic competition b/c colonialism Traveling=difficult, no roads Zanzibar- supported by E german b/c communist rev there Mainland- British supported (1/2 budget) played both sides The problem of foreign aid during the Cold War Solution:NON-ALIGNMENT
Nyerere attempted to position Tanzania so that it was neither a satellite of the west nor the eastern bloc while accepting aid and carrying on trade with both sides in the Cold War. NON-ALIGNMENT IN PRACTICE -Criticizing UK over Rhodesian UDI [The Unilateral Declaration of Independence i,.e. white minority break-away from UK colonial office- Nov. 11, 1965] -the TanZara Railroad Zambia couldnt export, asked china for railroad, US for highway -with officials from the People's Republic of China, laying the foundation stone of the new Chinese-Tanzanian Friendship Textile Mill in 1966. NEOCOLONIALISM The autonomy of the new African states is far less than it seems because the power relations formed in the colonial era continue after nominal political independence. European governmental and private interests continue to determine the political, economic, and social policies of new African governments. Internationalism controls the economy Julius Nyerere: tries to restructure Tanzania -external economic forces determine the nature of the economy -our countries are effectively governed by people who are interested in our affairs only insofar as it affects their own well-being Nyerere's attempts at restructuring Tanzania -Nyerere -- the man and the suit -Nation building - TANU yajenga nchi (nation building group) -Ujamaa - in principle; egalitarianism, why private vehicles, 2 homes? Socialism Ujamaa (famliness) so created... -The Pioneer Villages which failed b/c bad land - self sufficiency -Nationalizing the banks to control currency, new currency Bank managers fled so banks shut down "In socialist Tanzania, our agricultural organization would be predominantly that of co-operative living and working for the good of all. This means that most of our farming would be done by groups of people who live as a community and work as a community. A nation of such village communities would be a socialist nation" (UJAMAA: ESSAYS ON SOCIALISM [1968], p. 124). This was the basis of what was called the ujamaa village. In so doing, Nyerere attempted to build upon pre-colonial communal traditions: "All land now belongs to
the nation. But this was not an affront to our people; communal ownership of land is traditional in our country-it was the concept of freehold which had been foreign to them. In tribal tradition an individual or family secured rights in land for as long as they were using it. It became the family land when it was cleared and planted; for the rest of the time it was tribal land, and it reverted to tribal land if the family stopped working it" (UJAMAA, pp. 84-85). East African Shilling continued to be used until September 14, 1967 when local currencies were introduced in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, Somalia and Yemen. Nyerere nationalized all the banks (Standard, Barclays, National and Grindleys), one owned by Indians (Bank of Baroda) and one by Turks (Ottoman Bank). A parastatal body was created called National Bank of Commerce (or NBC) which conducted all banking operations in Tanzania. and the subsequent ad by Barclays: We do 68 % of the banking in Tanzania Tanzania represents .2% of our business worldwide Tanzania says it doesnt need us. Fine, the truth is we dont need Tanzania. Withdrawal the struggle to reopen the banks with Dutch staff hired under emergency conditions. DEVELOPMENT THEORY Third World countries are -undeveloped -insufficiently developed -less developed -underdeveloped because . . . . . .they lack the -capital -know-how, and -democratic institutions which led to development in the advanced industrial countries. In most new African nations, European models for -Parliamentary Democracy (cant work b/c that means people oppose developin, getting country goin, how??) -Education -Militarization -Agribusiness have failed to work or have failed to relieve the situation of the masses. Euro-America is not a possible model for the rest of the world Who's using what?
It requires 1/3 of the world's annual production of mineral resources to support the 6% of the world's population residing in the USA UNDERDEVELOPMENT THEORY the predicament of the 'under-developed' countries is due to the application of western -capital -know-how -and institutionalized inequality for a century or more . . . . . . resulting in economic and social patterns which continually reproduce poverty and political and economic subordination to the interests of western capital. Development theory, do more business=better, Iraq Johannesburg is developed but massive poor housing (3rd world attached to 1st world country) Tourism=development?? The current crisis of development in Africa -18 of the 20 poorest countries in the world are African Livinstone started, is failing, why? Mobutu- corrupt, corrupted whole government Failed states in Africa -Between 1950 and 1990 war caused more than 6.3 million deaths -Mozambique -cant feed children/ cant control army HIV/AIDS In the past two decades,15 million Africans have died because of AIDS. -Zimbabwe, soon treatment of Aids will cost whole gov revenue Rwanda Title : Forsaken cries [videorecording] : the story of Rwanda [Washington, D.C.] : Amnesty International USA, 1997. Subject : Genocide--Rwanda. Human rights. Rwanda--History--Civil War, 1994. Description : 1 videocassette (35 min.) : sd., col. ; 1/2 in. + 1 instructional guide (various pagings, loose-leaf ; 29 cm.) Summary : Video examines the 1994 genocide in Rwanda as a case study in the human rights challenges of the 21st century. Notes : Narrator, Danny Glover. VHS. 3 ethnicities Belgians: 50s need democracy in R, catholics also see need to equalize Hutu/Tutsi
Major Ethnic Identities in Rwanda -BaTwa -BaHutu -BaTutsi = WaTussi (Swahili) -Mwami = the king -Banyamalenge = Tutsi settled in E. Congo -All 3 groups speak Kinyarwanda Hutu 84% of population, Tutsi 15% 1950s Belgian colonial administration and Catholic Church encourage equality 1954 Tutsi King begins land reforms, is assassinated 5 years later 1959 THE HUTU REVOLT New King overthrown, flees Rwanda Tutsi retaliate, attack Hutu leader Kayabinda Genocide ensues, tens of thousands of Tutsi murdered, 150,000 flee to neighboring countries (hutu killin spree) 1960 UN backs referendum: Rwanda: republic or kingdom? Hutu vote overwhelming 85% republic Republic declared, Natl Assembly created w/ PM, Ind. From Belgians Kayabinda is Prime Minister 1962 Belgians grant independence Tutsi limited to 10% of civil service, university seats, positions in medicine, etc. 1964 Other political parties banned, Tutsi politicians murdered Hundred of thousands more Tutsi flee 1973 Major General Habyarimana (Hutu) overthrows Kayibanda, declares military rule, abolishes National Assembly 1974 Thousands of Tutsi forced to resign government jobs, several hundred killed, thousands flee 1978 Habyarimana reconfirmed as president, re-elected in 1983 and 1988 as only candidate 1990 international coffee prices tumble following meeting in Florida. Buying consortia create conditions to drop prices from $2.50 / kilo to less than $1 kilo. Rwandan government bought coffee from farmers and sold it through a state marketing board. Bottom fell out of mkt. of prime export coffee, gov began buying So Tutsi decide to attack Hutu regime (RPF) October 1990 RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front) Sponsor: Yoweri Museveni of Uganda Leader: Paul Kagame Target: Juvenal Habyarimana's government
RPF Armed movement composed primarily of Rwandan Tutsi refugees living in Uganda, many since 1959, invade (or start liberation of) Rwanda. RPF led by Paul Kagame, sponsored by Yoweri Museveni, leader of Uganda (who earlier was leader in liberation army that unseated Idi Amin, and then overthrew Milton Obote) The World Bank and The IMF(International Monetary Fund) impose Structural Adjustment Programs in midst of this, balance budget by closing hospitals, schools, destroys salary class, With price collapse, World Bank says there are 2 possible scenarios 1. Status quo (which is unacceptable) 2. Deregulation: this is sold as the solution to self-sustaining development. Imposed on Rwanda 6 weeks after beginning of civil war. Devaluation of Rwandan Franc by 50% Rise of food prices Compression of state expenditures The key is the combination of these SAP (Structural Adjustment Policies) and the beginning of the civil war. Conditions: freeze coffee price to producers (but all other prices doubled with devaluation fuel increased 70% in real terms). Internal transportation costs skyrocket. Not viable to get stuff to markets. Credit rates soar to 34% interest. Entire export economy pushed to bankruptcy (7 million people). The effect is that sale price of coffee is frozen below cost of production for framers. Farmers start to not replace coffee bushes, then to uproot healthy ones, shift to subsistence crops. But part of the conditions of deregulation were the opening of the grain market to cheap US and Canadian surplus grain that is dumped on the RW market. Request for more troops b/c impending action, overlooked Juvnal Habyarimana March 8, 1937 April 6, 1994 Habyarimanas death set off genocide UN failed to stop, 1 million deaths Hutu were denied land/ed, so killed tutsis later Kiyabanda- retained same classification of domination, just reversed roles
CONGO
King Baudouin I of Belgium Poorly planned transition to independence 1955 1957 British grant independence to Gold Coast becomes Ghana 1959 Belgian advisory commission: 30 year timetable for independence proposed Too little too late: evolues approve, but ABAKO and MNC reject the 30 year plan 1959 50 people killed at ABAKO demonstration French announce Congo-Brazzaville independence slated for mid-1960 Belgians concede to a rapid transition ABAKO or Association des Bakongo Joseph Kasavubu "Rather than postponing emancipation for another thirty years, we should be granted selfgovernment today." Patrice Lumumba MNC Mouvement National Congolais 1959 Belgian advisory commission: 30 year timetable for independence proposed Too little too late: evolues approve, but ABAKO and MNC reject the 30 year plan 1959 50 people killed at ABAKO demonstration French announce Congo-Brazzaville independence slated for mid-1960 Belgians concede to a rapid transition Jan 1960 conference designed a federal government system Present a united front to the Belgians, demand immediate, unconditional independence Belgians: "Not one soldier for the Congo" Thinking of the French war in Algeria June 30, 1960 Independence President Joseph Kasavubu Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba Lumumba addresses the legislative chamber, with King Baudouin present, and denounces the Belgian colonial system Nous ne sommes plus vos singes We are no longer your monkeys Hell broke loose after Congo independence from Belgium Belgium provoke Katanga secession to access mines & goods then month later Kasai province, diamond area, secedes Independence marked by immediate collapse of public order
within a week the army mutinies, violence erupts against whites, mass flight from the country interethnic violence Katanga secedes (Moise Tshombe) with the support of the Belgians and the Union Miniere du Haute Katanga 12 days into independence Foreign Intervention Lumumba calls in UN troops Internal power struggles Lumumba then falls out with Kasavubu and turns to Soviets Before they can get involved, head of the army, former Lumumba backer, Joseph Mobutu intervenes, announces that he is "neutralizing all political leaders" Sidney Gottlieb, CIA The end of Lumumba Lumumba arrested and escapes twice, flees toward Stanleyville (Kisangani). Picked up by Mobutu's forces in early December 1960 then ends up in the hands of Katanga rebels. Killed Aug 22, 1961 Many different stories about how he and two aides were killed and what happened to the bodies Belgians directly involved and perhaps CIA Mobutu ruthlessly persecutes Lumumbists Dag Hammarskjld UN Secretary-General Died Sept 18, 1961, in plane crash while negotiating Katangan ceasefire Hammarskjold was tryin to reunite Katanga (tscombe) w/ Congo Sept 19, 1961: Dag Hammarskjold, UN Secretary General, who worked to bring Katanga back into Congo, dies in plane crash with 15 others flying to Rhodesia to plead with Tshombe July, 1960, Congo when the new government there, faced with mutiny in its army, secession of its province of Katanga, and intervention of Belgian troops, asked the UN for help. The UN responded by sending a peace-keeping force, with Hammarskjld in charge of operations. in September, 1961, when, arriving in Leopoldville to discuss details of UN aid with the Congolese government, he learned that fighting had erupted between Katanga troops and the noncombatant forces of the UN. A few days later, in an effort to secure a cease-fire, he left by air for a personal conference with President Tshombe of Katanga. Sometime in the night of September 17-18, he and fifteen others aboard perished when their plane crashed near the border between Katanga and North Rhodesia. Newly released South African documents note CIA director Allen Dulles "Agrees Dag is becoming troublesome and should be removed"
Anonymous comment "I want Dags removal to be handled more efficiently than was Patrice" Bomb in wheel bay of DC-6 Bob Denard, mercenary leader, Kisangani 1963 Jan 1963 Tshombe yields claim to independent Katanga - 125 UN troops killed in action, unrecorded thousands of rebels and civilians (Belgium had assured UN that Tshombe kept Katanga safe for whites, but in fact more died in K than the rest of the Congo). Mobutuism 1965 Mobutu seizes full power, ousts Kasavubu 1971 declares the Second Republic as a one-party state with himself as Founding President Mobutuism the official ideology Every citizen to join his Popular Revolutionary Movement Citizens required to sing his praises daily 1971 Zaire Joseph-Dsir Mobutu Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga "The all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake" African "Authenticity" The abacos ( bas le costume = down with the suit) His gov- cleptocracy, failing infrastructure Anti-communist, therefore, the US loved Bought ppl., corrupted, Wages- 2% of those at independence, coffee farmers paid 1/5 of Belgian colonial times US backed Mobutus quellin of Katangan revolutions Personalized economics Union Miniere and other corporations nationalized, given to cronies, assets sold, everything goes for a cut. "a kleptocracy" infrastructure deteriorated bribe nurses for medicine, bureaucrats for documents, school principals for admission, police to stay out of jail (Bill Levines story of the policeman in the taxi) By 1990 60% of food imported but urban wages = 2% of 1960 wages, coffee farmers paid 20% of what they received in 1954 under the Belgians US and European support Our staunch ally in fight against communism in Angola CIA airstrips to supply guerillas against Angolan government
Some Iran-Contra money to this effort 1977 and 1978 US backed military interventions (Belgian, French, Moroccan troops) put down revolts in Shabaa (Katanga) Mobutu's personal wealth was said to equal the national debt HANDOUTS on course website 1996 Rwanda, Uganda join Kabila in attacking Mobutu May 1997 Laurent Kabila's troops take Kinshasa Kabila brings back DRC, but cant deliver any reform, wheels & deals like everyone else Tutsi, Ugandan, Rwandan Troops Congo ppl. revolt against foreign "invasion" on Tutsi? 1998 reinvade, Uganda & Rwanda attack Kabilas regime Kabila assassinated, chaos again, Son from Nairobi, Joseph, January 2001 speaks English & Swahili, not French; doesnt solve problems, further plunge into child soldier, inflation Poor infrastructure, roads Uganda uses congos resources, so does Rwanda Rebel controlled areas supplied by Rwanda/Uganda, fight Cobalt, gold, tin, diamonds Image date: 10/22/2003 [DRC, Uganda] Ugandan army tank at Bunia, Kinshasa airport, Democratic Republic of Congo, on withdrawal day, 24 April 2003. Ugandan withdrawal is part of a deal signed by Presidents Joseph Kabila of the DRC and Yoweri Museveni on 6 September 2002 in Luanda, Angola. 2004 December - Fighting in the east between the Congolese army and renegade soldiers from a former pro-Rwanda rebel group. Rwanda denies being behind the mutiny. 2005 March - UN peacekeepers say they have killed more then 50 militia members in an offensive, days after nine Bangladeshi soldiers serving with the UN are killed in the north-east. 2005 May - New constitution, with text agreed by former warring factions, is adopted by National Assembly. 2005 September - Uganda warns that its troops may re-enter DR Congo after a group of Ugandan Lord's Resistance Army rebels enter via Sudan.
2005 November - A first wave of soldiers from the former Zairean army returns after almost eight years of exile in the neighbouring Republic of Congo. Vice-President Jean-Pierre Bemba Mouvement de Libration du Congo President Joseph Kabila Parti du peuple pour la reconstruction et la dmocratie premiere Image date: 8/22/2006 [DRC] (Left to right) Second-round contenders Vice-President Jean-Pierre Bemba of the Mouvement de Libration du Congo, and President Joseph Kabila of the Parti du peuple pour la reconstruction et la dmocratie premiere, in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, 17 August 2006. Kabila is the current transitional president while Bemba is one of his vice-presidents and chief rival. Image date: 7/28/2006 [DRC] A woman carrying her child runs for safety from the burning compound of former rebel leader and current vice president Jean-Pierre Bembas bodyguards in Kinshasa, DRC, 27 July 2006. Thousands of demonstrators, who want Congos first multiparty elections in 40 years to be delayed because of political tensions and accusations of flaws, threw rocks and gasoline bombs, blocking a highway into the city centre. This yr. attempt to create democracy under Pres. Kabila, VP Bemba But violence b4, at Bembas place 7/30 election, 1st since 1960 election to Independence Run-off: 12/16/05, Kabila Prez, Bemba rejects results 12/21/2006 supreme ct. burned when try to solve problems, call in EU troops, moved case Image date: 7/31/2006 [DRC] People queue up to vote in the countrys first multiparty general election since 1960, Kinshasa, DRC, 30 July 2006. Since neither candidate won more than 50 percent in the last general elections, a second round of voting is scheduled for 29 October 2006. Image date: 7/31/2006 [DRC] A woman holding her voting card waits in line at the voting station at St Anne Cathedral in Kinshasa, DRC, 30 July 2006.
Voters took part in the first multiparty general election since 1960. The polls are being supported by the United Nations mission in the country, about 3,000 UN troops would secure the elections in Kivu North KINSHASA, 16 Nov 2006 The DRCs Independent Electoral Commission has declared Joseph Kabila winner of a run-off presidential poll that marked the end of the country's three-year transition to democracy. KINSHASA, 17 Nov 2006 Jean-Pierre Bemba, has rejected the provisional results of the run-off presidential poll announced by the Democratic of Republic Congo's Independent Electoral Commission. KINSHASA, 21 Nov 2006 (IRIN) - Part of Congo's Supreme Court was burnt on Tuesday as judges reviewed electoral fraud complaints filed by supporters of presidential contender Jean-Pierre Bemba. The session was immediately suspended. It is unclear who started the fire, but police fired shots into the air to disperse Bemba supporters demanding to enter the court building. EU peacekeepers deployed close to the Supreme Court in Kinshasa, which was set alight during protests over alleged fraud in the presidential run-off KINSHASA, 24 Nov 2006 (IRIN) - Residents of Kinshasa have largely remained indoors and fearful after President Joseph Kabila requested that his rival Jean-Pierre Bemba withdraw some of his personal guards from the city by Friday. KINSHASA, 27 Nov 2006 (IRIN) - Between 15,000 and 20,000 people have fled the eastern town of Sake in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which was seized from army dissidents by United Nations and government troops on Monday, the commander of the 8th Military Region said. Dissisent arny General Laurent Nkunda whose troops lost Sake on Monday to army and UN troops South African History Jan van Riebeck April 6, 1652 Parallels US history, diff. than others b/c colonial/ "settlement" history -Protestants from Holland fleeing religious persecution -new religious community away from Old Europe 1st settlement=Capetown, then treks by Boehr (Dutch farmer) also Fr. Hugenots (Protestants) -ran into Khoisan speakers & creole language formed Afrikaans- Dutch & Khoisan/Bantu
-1806 British seize Cape of Good Hope for way to far East from Dutch, create English Cape Colony English settlers arrive in significant numbers in Cape Colony -1834 British abolish slavery, Freetown, Thousands of Boers start The Great Trek Problems when run into Zulu Dopplers- intentionally goin away from enlightenment into Darkness Treks in KwaZulu-Natal Zulu- attack wagons/ trains The Battle of Blood River 16 December 1838 500 voortrekkers vs an estimated 10,000 Zulu warriors 2,000 casualties, all Zulu The laager(circle the wagons) as an iconic symbol for Afrikaners sm. white group can withstand lg. blk. barbarians The Great Trek and the establishment of the Boer Republics Afrikaners escape Cape to Free State, consider themselves African, Natives=Bantu Bad things 1871 Diamonds discovered (the beginning of Kimberley) 1886 Gold discovered (the beginning of Johannesburg) 1886 Gold discovered by handyman/prospector, George Harrison on the Oosthuizen farm, "Langlaagte", on what are the western outskirts of present day Johannesburg. Thousands pour in, financial leverage for later SA poli dealings 1892 There are more than 40,000 uitlanders (foreigners) living in Johannesburg; larger than the entire Boer population of the then Transvaal Republic. 1897 The Anglo-Zulu War, defeat the Zulu The Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902 500,000 troops from the British Empire vs 40,000 Boer commandos British forces burning Afrikaner farms during the Anglo-Boer War Lord Kitchner-British-break stalemate, destroy all Boehr sustenance, family, cows, houses, razed camps In early March 1901 Lord Kitchener decided to break the stalemate that the extremely costly war had settled into. It was costing the British taxpayer 2.5 million a month. He decided to sweep the country bare of everything that can give sustenance to the Boers i.e. cattle, sheep, horses, women and children.
This scorched earth policy led to the destruction of about 30,000 Boer farmhouses and the partial and complete destruction of more than forty towns... Thousands of women and children were removed from their homes by force. They had little or no time to remove valuables before the house was burnt down. They were then taken by ox wagon or in open cattle trucks to the nearest camp. Boer women and children in a British concentration camp 5,010 women and 21,360 children died in the camps Conditions in the camps were less than ideal. Tents were overcrowded. Reduced-scale army rations were provided. In fact there were two scales. Meat was not included in the rations issued to women and children whose menfolk were still fighting. There were little or no vegetables, no fresh milk for the babies and children, 3/4 lb of either mealie meal, rice or potatoes, 1 lb of meat twice weekly, I oz of coffee daily, sugar 2 oz daily, and salt 0,5 oz daily (this was for adults and children who had family members on commando). Children who were under six years of age received 0,5 lb of meal daily, 1/2 meat twice weekly, 1/4 tin of milk daily, 1 oz sugar daily and 1/2 oz of salt daily. This very poor diet led to the rapid spread of diseases such as whooping cough, measles, typhoid fever, diphtheria, diarrhoea and dysentery, especially amongst the children. There was a chronic shortage of both medical supplies and medical staff. Eventually 26,370 women and children (81% were children) died in the concentration camps. The visit of the British humanitarian, Miss Emily Hobhouse, a delegate of the South African Women and Children's Distress Fund to the camps in the southern Orange Free State led to an improvement in the conditions. On her return to Britain the story she told of the conditions under which the women and children had to live shocked everyone not committed to believe in the inevitability of the war and the harsh measures that were to end it. Her fifteen page report to the Committee of the Distress Fund was first circulated to MP's and published in late June. From August to December 1901 the Fawcett Commission visited the different camps and presented their report in December confirming in all essentials the accuracy of Emily Hobhouse's account. They berated the camp authorities for the red tape which complicated the running of the camps, the spread of diseases that should have been foreseen, elementary rules of sanitation that had been forgotten, the vegetables that should have been provided; and the fact that medical staff should have been rushed to the scene as soon as the epidemics broke out. Their recommendations led to improvements within the camp system. By February the annual death-rate in the camps dropped to 6.9 percent and soon to 2 percent.
The Union of South Africa British finally win, create union, w/ odd flag 1913- disparate country: Boehr farmer, Zulu, Gold mine, Cape Town Afrikaners moved to towns b/c economy Between WW I and WW II
May Afrikaners move to the cities WW II economic boom By 1946 as many Blacks and Whiles in towns and cities British taken out by Boehrs, made Republic The "Apartheid Election" of 1948 Running on a platform of apartheid, as it was termed for the first time, Malan and his party benefited from the weight given to rural electorates. Although the Herenigde Nasionale Party had received 140,000 less of the total votes cast than their opponents, The Herenigde Nasionale Party and its coalition partner, the Afrikaner Party, won seventy-nine seats against the seventy-four of their United and Labour Party opponents. The Herenigde Nasionale Party consequently became the government, renamed itself the National Party and ruled South Africa until 1994. Apartheid-separation/segregation in election, took over government, combined Herenigde, Afrikaner ruled openly racist until 1994 Built in honour of the Voortrekkers (Pioneers), who left the Cape Colony in their thousands between 1835 and 1854. Ground breaking in 1937 The cornerstone was laid by the granddaughter of Andries Pretorius, the great granddaugther of Hendrik Potgieter), and the great granddaughter of Piet Retief the next year. The Voortrekker Monument was inaugurated on 16 December 1949. Laager wall Blood river monument Zulu: Ncome Monument and Museum Complex 1998 Daniel Malan Prime Minister 1948 1954 The National Party begins apartheid policies 1949 250,000 Afrikaners celebrate at Voortrekker Monument Acts Passed During Apartheid 1949 Mixed Marriages Act Banning marriages between people of a different race. 1950 Population Registration Act Every person was classified as a white, coloured or native. 1950 Suppression Of Communism Act Banning of supporters of communism and anyone who defied the apartheid laws. 1950 Group Areas Act The races were separated and lived in different areas. Immorality Act Banning of sexual relations between people of a different race.
1952 New Passes Law Passes had to be carried by all natives at all times. 52 Native Law Amendment Act The undesirable natives were to be removed from towns to reserves. 53 Separate Amenities Act Races had to be separated in public areas. 53 Bantu Education Act Separate schools were formed for natives to prepare them for an inferior position in society. 1953 Minister for Native Affairs Hendrik Verwoerd When I have control of native education I will reform it so that native swill be taught from childhood to realize that equality with Europeans is not for them ... People who believe in equality are not desirable teachers for natives....When my Department controls native education, it will know for what class of higher education a native is fitted, and whether he will have a chance in life to use his knowledge. Hendrik Verwoerd "The Mastermind of Apartheid" Prime Minister 1958 Assassinated 1966 1960: English/Afrikaner split has become bitter. Nationalists hold referendum, and win, on issue of the Republic. The Afrikaners have finally won the Boer War. 1960: Shortly afterward: McMillan speaking to South African Parliament: "The wind of change", "Whether we like it or not, this African national consciousness is a political fact." Two months later: Sharpeville. 69 killed, 180 wounded. "Afrikanerdom defeated the British only to be confronted with the Black Peril." Balthazar Johannes Vorster Interned by Union government as Nazi sympathizer 1942 1944 Minister of Justice 1961 1966 Prime Minister 1966 1978 'We stand for Christian Nationalism which is an ally of National Socialism,' he said in 1942. 'You can call this antidemocratic principle dictatorship if you wish. In Italy it is called Fascism, in Germany German National Socialism, and in South Africa Christian Nationalism.' South African Homelands turns native reserves into separate countries, no countries recognized them tho,
Vorster, Balthazar Johannes yohns bltzr frstr , 1915-83, 1942-44 Interned for opposition to the allies in World War II 1948 Apartheid election 1953 elected to the South African Parliament as a Nationalist party member. He became a leader of the party's right wing. 1958, Vorster was made deputy minister in Hendrik Verwoerd's cabinet. Responsible for education, he rigidly enforced the apartheid Bantu Education Act. 1961- minister of justice suppressed opponents of apartheid. Sept., 1966 assassination of Verwoerd -- Voster became prime minister. pressed Rhodesia's Ian Smith to negotiate with Mozambique invaded Angola to protect South West Africa (now Namibia) harshly suppressed the Soweto uprisings in 1976 granted "independence to Transkei as a first step in apartheid's "separate development. After resigning for health reasons in 1978 to become State President, he was forced to resign the latter post when implicated (1979) in a scandal. 1960 March 21 Sharpeville Robert Sobukwe, President of the Pan-Africanist Congress Beginning on 18 March 1960, events began to spiral out of control. Robert Sobukwe, President of the Pan-Africanist Congress who had been detained with Lutuli, announced that a campaign for the abolition of the hated pass laws would begin on 21 March. He called for all Africans to leave their passes at home and surrender for arrest at police stations. Lutuli endorsed his proposal. March 21 Sharpeville near Johannesburg Police fire on unarmed demonstrators 72 killed, 178 critically wounded Africans by the tens and hundreds of thousands descended on police stations in response to Sobukwes admonition. At Sharpeville, in the Transvaal, an estimated 25,000 peaceful demonstrators rallied near a police compound. Without warning, heavily armed police opened fire. When the smoke cleared, 72 Africans lay dead and 178 were critically wounded. Throughout the Union, police firepower was unleashed, and the funereal day ended with more than 300 martyred and thousands grievously wounded. The black sash-worn by rich, old women to support black struggle On 26 March 1960, Chief Lutuli publicly burned his government issued pass. As the pass burned and crumbled to ash, Lutuli spoke of its injustice and urged all Africans throughout the country to do the same in repudiation of the hated "Pass Law". Government reacted later that day by temporarily suspending the Pass Law. 1976 Soweto Schoolchildren protest switch from English to Afrikaans in schools widespread riots follow, English-expands horizon, Afrikaans narrows focus
1980s Violence in townships leads to State of Emergency, suppression of reporting Leading industrialists and non-government figures start negotiations with ANC outside South Africa Violence against government collaborators, so negotiate w/ Af congress b/c too expensive (outside country), Afrikaners farther right Van Zyl Slabbert: one of architects of 1st democratic elections in SA 1979: 'when the costs ... of maintaining white domination increase to an unacceptably high point, most whites will want to, or could be persuaded to, move away from it'. Can no longer afford racism International community boycotts South African, apartheid goods Mandela on Roben Island Afrikaner Movement of Resistance Soweto SOuth WEst TOwnship Townships- poor communities for native Africans F.W. de Klerk 1978-1986 various cabinet posts in apartheid government 1989 elected State President 1990 frees Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela Imprisoned 1964-1990 for plotting to overthrow the government with violence President of the ANC South Africa in the 1980s the crisis peaks: -International campaign to Boycott of South African products Divestitute: withdraw investments in South Africa -mass protests -widespread political violence -Governmental State of Emergency = the police state SA- 1st & 3rd world country stuck together, only African nuclear power, destroyed weapons South Africa in the 1980s The transition: Leaders of the business community declare apartheid unsustainable and negotiate (outside South Africa) with the (banned) African National Congress.
The deal: -majority rule in political institutions -preservation of private property rights and the capitalist economic system Biz. Leaders negotiate deal: democracy, capitalism Nothing changed amongst biz. Leaders, cant afford racism anymore Students protest Mandelas continued imprisonment, protests in townships (esp. march for Shapesville massacre) State of Emergency, as oppression grew, so did Mandela obsession Desmond Tutu- calls for peace Whites scared to lose institutions grow more towards the rt. Afrikaner Movement of Resistance SOE hurts economy, but blacks call for more sanctions White businesses look to ANC for their own interests The breakthrough: F.W. de Klerk 1989 elected State President 1990 frees Nelson Mandela after 26 years in prison Traditional supporters leanin to rt. So takes risk w/ Mandela, relaxes SOE, legalizes ANC Klerk frees Mandela, Nobel Always political opponents but still remarkable transition Mandela African Natl Congress- 26yrs in prison Blames Boehrs Beko-martyr for ANC 78- repealed passlaws, new leader Nelson Mandela 1994 elected President of South Africa as leader of the Government of National Unity VP- Klerk
Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika
Current Xhosa Version
Lord Bless Africa
Current English Version Lord, bless Africa May her spirit rise high up
Hear thou our prayers Lord bless us. Lord, bless Africa May her spirit rise high up Hear thou our prayers Lord bless us Your family. Chorus Descend, O Spirit Descend, O Holy Spirit Lord bless us Your family. (Repeat)
. Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika was composed in 1897 by Enoch Sontonga, a teacher at a Methodist mission school in Johannesburg. It was one of many songs he composed, and he was apparently a keen singer who composed the songs for his pupils. The words of the first stanza were originally written in Xhosa as a hymn. In 1927 seven additional Xhosa stanzas were later added by Samuel Mqhayi, a poet. Most of Sontonga's songs were sad, witnessing the suffering of African people in Johannesburg, but they were popular and after his death in 1905 choirs used to borrow them from his wife. Solomon Plaatje, one of South Africa's greatest writers and a founding member of the ANC, was the first to have the song recorded. This was in London in 1923. A Sesotho version was published in 1942 by Moses Mphahlele. The Rev J L Dube's Ohlange Zulu Choir popularised Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika at concerts in Johannesburg, and it became a popular church hymn that was also adopted as the anthem at political meetings. For decades Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika was regarded as the national anthem of South Afrika by the oppressed and it was always sung as an act of defiance against the apartheid regime. A proclamation issued by the State President on 20 April 1994 stipulated that both Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika and Die Stem (the Call of South Africa) would be the national anthems of South Africa. In 1996 a shortened, combined version of the two anthems was released as the new National Anthem. Crisis of Development 75% black, 8% Coloured-mix race, 14% white ANC 62% nation w/ Mandela Natl Party FW de Klerk carried vote in Cape Province (Capetown- major city, largest % Afrikan speakin coloured & European, played race card- blacks will overcome) KwaZulu province- Inkatha freedom party
Orania- Afrikaner white homeland Warriors of Boehr Nation white extremists Dec 16, 1998 Blood River: Afrikaners hold annual rally (1838) Across the small riverbed, the government unveils a RAND 2.5 million monument to fallen Zulu warriors SA tried to confront past, rather than overlook Desmond Tutu- Truth & Reconciliation Committee- investigate apartheid crimes (atonement) Once became democracy & opened up, lots of exportin, capitalism great start, no intl biz laws, 1991- 1.7% export, 2001- 12.8%, exports tons in Africa too Shaking off decades of apartheid- era isolation, South African executives, both black and white, are moving north to buy struggling banks, rebuild rundown railways and bring first-world technology, including cellphones, cash machines and locomotives to an impoverished continent. South African businesses are running the national railroad in Cameroon and will soon run Madagascar's. They are managing power plants in Mali and Zambia. They are brewing local beers in Mozambique and Ghana. They are the leading providers of cellphone service in Nigeria, Uganda and Cameroon. They control banks and supermarkets in Tanzania, Mozambique and Kenya. Where we left of the discussion of post-independence economics: We had talked about neocolonialism And the dominant mindset of development (development theory): free trade will produce goods and Good just as Margaret Thatcher was against sanctions against the apartheid regime of South Africa (and Ronald Reagan agreed, arguing for "constructive engagement"), every administration since has espoused the idea that the best thing we can do for the rest of the world is do more business with them successes of capitalism uneven, Johannesburg vs. townships around it Is this development: Providing the first world with cheap clothing Solving agricultural problems with CDs Trying to double tourism Selling off the national airline to the one overwhelmingly wealthy nation in Africa (now that the government leaders of South Africa are Black instead of White, I guess this isn't neocolonialism ...) Current crisis of development:
-18 of 20 poorest countries Development of Africa as a whole is failing, why?? Criminalization of the state, war, aids One alternate theory (post-Marxist) is that the dominant paradigm of the First Workd is either blind or hypocritical about the relationship between "the North" and "The South" or the developed world and the rest the predicament of the 'under-developed' countries is due to the application of western -capital -know-how -and institutionalized inequality for a century or more . . . . . resulting in economic and social patterns which continually reproduce poverty and political and economic subordination to the interests of western capital. Developed world not gunna change how they attacked problem Development is not just a goal of rational action in the economic, political and social spheres. It is also, and very deeply, the focus of redemptive hopes and expectations. In an important sense, development is a religious category. Even for those living on the most precarious margins of existence, development is not just a matter of improved material conditions; it is at least also a vision of redemptive transformation. Peter Berger GIOVANNI ARRIGHI THE AFRICAN CRISIS World Systemic and Regional Aspects [2002] Over the last quarter of a century, the African crisis of the late 1970s has been transformed into what has aptly been called the ,,African Tragedy. Sub-Saharan Africa GNP per capita 1999 Life expectancy Undernourished 2002
1975 17.6% of world GNP per capita 10.5% 2002 49 years 34% of population
Infant mortality 1999 Sub-S. Africa South Asia Latin America
107 / 1000 live births 69 32
Colin Leys Confronting the African Tragedy At independence... even the [departing colonial officers] did not doubt that in general, the African ex-colonies were viable; while the African nationalist leaders and their
western supporters were confident that with independence their countries economic growth rates would accelerate and the gap between Africa and the industrial world would be progressively closed... The Collapse of Development We now know that this was a tragic delusion, and that after two ,,development decades most people in sub-Saharan Africa are poorer than they were thirty years ago, while a chronic dependence on ,,aid has made a mockery of their countries formal sovereignty. [1994] Some have gone so far as to not only call the recent stage of relations RECOLONIZATION, but have actually recommended it as a way to once again try to save Africa (from itself?) Recolonization called for Paternalism: 1. Basic social services are provided by NGOs [Non-Governmental Organizations] 2. The armed forces are under the stewardship of the United Nations or former colonial powers ...or worse PMCs (private military companies), mercenaries 3. Elections are in the hands of international observers [one hopes] 4. The most productive resources and real estate are owned by multinational corporations 5. National treasuries supervised by The World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) - The World Bank and the IMF impose Structural Adjustment Programs as a condition of further loans Policies of: - Government budgets balanced by massive cuts (layoffs) in education, health, civil service -Local currency devalued against major currencies -Exports much cheaper -Imports much more expensive -Highest economic priority given to making loan repayments (or at least meeting interest payments) -Maximization of crops for export (and foreign exchange) not crops for local markets (i.e., basic foods) Stiglitz: Globalization & its discontents "It is clear to almost everyone that something has gone horribly wrong... In Africa, the high aspirations following colonial independence have been largely unfulfilled. Instead the continent plunge deeper into misery, as incomes fall and standards of living decline." 1. 2. Privatisation led to corrupt sell-offs of state industries Capital market liberalization. disastrous capital flows
3. Market-based pricing. "a fancy term for raising prices on food, water and cooking gas" leading, "predictably", to social unrest and often "peaceful demonstrations dispersed by bullets, tanks and tear gas" 4. Free trade Europeans and Americans today are kicking down barriers to sales in Asia, Latin American and Africa while barricading our own markets against the Third World's agriculture Free trade means that those with the best purchasing power have first access to the resources of another country (and since free trade sounds like equal opportunity, a sense that they also have a right to those resources) Chinua Akukwe Worldpress.org contributing editor January 25, 2006 Ten Challenges of Africa's Development in 2006 1. Kofi Annan is in the last year of his 10-year tenure as secretary general of the United Nations. 2. The ongoing Darfur crisis in Western Sudan will show no signs of abating and may destabilize neighboring nations such as Chad. 3. Dangerous conflicts may get out of hand in various parts of Africa. 4. Famine and hunger are on a dangerous march in a large swath of Africa. 5. H.I.V./AIDS, TB and Malaria will continue to claim millions of lives. 6. Political transitions will remain haywire. 7. The economy of most African nations will continue to be a struggle. 8. The continent will continue to be on pace to miss most of the milestones set aside in the Millennium Development Goals for 2015. 9. Governance will remain a major challenge, and external donors may take unilateral, punitive action. 10. The human resources capacity crisis in Africa will continue to get worse The Big Picture: The crisis of development in Africa is inseparable from global processes... and these processes are hurtling toward two interrelated crises: a. The end of cheap oil (resource depletion) b. Precipitous climate change (waste accumulation) Lovelock Gaia Euro-America is not a possible model for the rest of the world Meanwhile there is a deeper problem that the problems of Africa whether or not they are separate from the problems of the developed world or symptomatic of the relations between the developed and underdeveloped worlds), and that is that current worldwide processes can not go on much longer in the same trajectory Who's using what? It requires 1/3 of the world's annual production of mineral resources to support the 6% of the world's population residing in the USA
And the key resource is about to become scarce we will soon have to deal with less and less energy the decline may be very sharp and chaotic, or it may be more gentle and controlled, depending on what we do in terms of efficiencies, conservation, alternate fuels, etc., but the days of development as we know it are almost over Is this bad news or good news for Africa? The Desertification of the Sahel has been a problem since droughts started in the 1960s UN Secretary General announces "Nairobi Framework" to help developing countries participate in the Kyoto Protocol Africas Acute Vulnerability to Climate Change underlined in New Report