[A] KANTIANISM Themes in our Ordinary Moral Reasoning Kantianism is designed to capture: (a) Moral reasons are the most important; they override other kinds of reasons for acting. (b) The motive behind an action is the most important factor in determining its moral normative status. (Consider cases of "moral luck".) (c) Each person deserves to be treated with dignity and respect. (d) It is morally wrong to take advantage of the forbearance of others, to make a moral exception of oneself: "What if everyone were to do that?" [B] Categorical and Hypothetical Imperatives Because morality tells you what you ought to do -- it issues commands or orders - it must be expressed by imperatives. Because it overrides all other reasons for acting -it makes unconditional demands -- it must be expressed by categorical imperatives. (i) Hypothetical Imperatives: These are conditional imperatives, sentences of the form: ,,If...., then [Order]. If the condition is not one that everyone wants, it is problematic. If this condition is one that everyone wants, it is assertoric. When the condition is one that everyone wants, i.e. when the hypothetical imperative is assertoric, we often dont mention the condition explicitly. Categorical Imperatives: These are unconditional imperatives: Do this! Dont do that! Kant held that at bottom there is only one categorical imperative -- the Categorical Imperative. This can be formulated in a number of ultimately equivalent ways differing in which aspects of our moral thinking they emphasize. The First Form of the Categorical Imperative [CI1] This is designed to capture themes (b) and (d) of our ordinary moral reasoning. "I ought never to act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim become a universal law." "We must be able to will that a maxim of our action should become a universal law this is the general canon for all moral judgment of action." [CI1] An action a is morally right iff the agent of a can consistently will that GM(a) become a universal law of nature. Definitions: (i) The agent of a=df. the person who would do a if it were to be done. (ii) A maxim =df. "a subjective principle of action", i.e. a statement of the form: ,,Whenever I am in situation S, I will do action-type (iv) A.
(ii)
[C]
(iii) (v) (vi)
(vii)
M(a) =df. the maxim that the agent of action a had in mind in doing a. GM(a) =df. the generalized form of M(a), the result of replacing all references to the agent of a in M(a) by references to everyone, anyone etc. x wills that so-and-so be the case =df. x commands him/herself to make it the case that so-and-so. x wills inconsistently =df. either: (a) x wills that p but p is a logical, metaphysical or physical impossibility; or (b) x wills that p and x wills that q, and although p is possible and q is possible, it is not possible that both p and q. A universal law of nature =df. a completely general claim that expresses a physical necessity -- something like a law of physics or chemistry.
[D]
The Second Form of the Categorical Imperative [CI2] This is designed to capture theme (c) of our ordinary moral reasoning. "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end." "So act in relation to every rational being (both to yourself and to others) that he may at the same time count in your maxim as an end in himself." [CI2] An action a is morally right iff the agent of a, in performing a, refrains from treating any person (himself or another) merely as a means.
[D]
The Third Form of the Categorical Imperative [CI3] This is designed to capture theme (b) of our ordinary moral reasoning, in particular, the intuition that people of integrity those who stick to the moral principles that they have adopted for themselves -- are unusually admirable. "...an action which is compatible with the autonomy of the will is permitted; one which does not harmonize with it is forbidden." "...every rational being as an end in himself, must be able to regard himself as also the make of universal law in respect of any law whatever to which he may be subjected." [CI3] An action a is morally right iff the agent, in performing a, follows some law autonomously. Definitions: (i) x follows a law or principle autonomously =df. x follows it primarily because x conceives of herself as having established it. (ii) x follows a law or principle heteronomously =df. x follows it out of inclination.