Katherine Dr. Heenan English 472 Spring 2007 Herrick Notes Herrick, James. A History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction. 3rd edition. New York: Allyn and Bacon, 2005 Chapter Four Aristotle on Rhetoric entered Platos Academy around age 17 joined an intellectual circle that included some of the most eminent philosophers and scientists of the age (73). began his career as an orthodox Platonist continued Platos battle with the sophists was critical of rhetoric early in his career but turned toward more careful study prolific writerestimates he wrote as many as 550 books only a fraction of his work survivesmost notably, the Rhetoric there he set out a systematic course in rhetoric for the benefit of his more advanced students and in an effort to legitimate the study of rhetoric in his school much of his theory is a response to Platos criticisms and to sophistic treatises on rhetoric
Aristotles Definitions of Rhetoric book presents some problems for scholars early manuscripts are derived from students notes rather than from Aristotles own writings some scholars believe an entire additional book (on humor?) may have been lost Book Idefines and establishes domain of rhetoric and describes 3 types or oratory Book IIdiscusses rhetorical proofs derived from character and emotion Book IIIfocuses on matters of style and arrangement Rhetoric and Dialectic Aristotle asserts that rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic dialectic discussed in Aristotles Topics by asserting that rhetoric is the counterpart to the techne of dialectic, Aristotle answers his teachers claim that rhetoric is a mere analogy to the knack of cooking. Aristotle understood dialectic as a logical method of debating issues of general interest, starting from widely accepted propositions (75). dialectic resolved foundational questions in philosophy rhetoric and dialectic both begin with commonly held opinions, and addresses a wide range of questions. However, rhetoric employs proofs dialectic avoidsproofs from character and emotion (75) public speech typical form of rhetoricaddressed to a large, general audience dialectic is more private and addressed at small, trained group Dialectic was a logical method of debating issues of general interest, starting from widely accepted propositions. Dialectic was often employed for resolving foundational questions in philosophy, but the dialectical method was also useful for resolving a range of issues. Dialectic allowed one to reason on both sides of a question, and thus assisted discovery of knowledge. Rhetoric is similar to dialectic in that it employs commonly held opinions as starting points for argument, and in that it is not limited to a specific class of questions. However, rhetoric develops proofs of a type not found in dialecticproofs from character and emotionand it is useful in resolving practical issues of public significance, like those which arise in
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the political and judicial arenas. Dialectic is typically a matter of briefly stated questions and relatively brief answers, and its typical argument is the syllogism. by calling rhetoric a counterpart to dialectic, Aristotle hoped to distinguish it from sophistry In Gorgias, Plato criticized rhetoric as a kind of trickery, or a mere knack of persuasion. Aristotle, on the other hand, defined rhetoric as a techne, or true art. Rhetoric was, for him, "the faculty (dunamis) of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." Whereas Plato had only hinted at the possibility of a true art of rhetoric in Phaedrus, in Rhetoric, Aristotle set out a systematic course in rhetoric. Aristotle avoided the moralizing tone of Plato, and approached rhetoric in a pragmatic and scientific way.
Rhetoric as Techne Aristotle defines rhetoric as a practical and systematic art, or techne defines rhetorics domain as discovering the available means of persuasiona function not the domain of any other art i.e., rhetoric has its own purpose and goals Why Rhetoric is Useful Aristotle offers reasons 4 for rhetorics usefulness o if all things were equal, true and just ideas would prevail on their own; however, since that is not the case, ideas need to advocacy of rhetoric o offers instruction in how to adapt ideas to an audience, all of whom are not easily instructed o offers debate on other-side of issue o is a non-violent means of self-defense The Enthymeme Aristotle calls the enthymema or enthymeme "a sort of syllogism." A syllogism is a deductive argument moving from a general premise to a specific and necessary conclusion. Rhetoric is constructed of arguments involving premises shared by the speaker and audience. That is, an enthymeme depends on a previous agreement about a belief, a value, or preference. "Enthymeme" literally means "held in the mind," and enthymemes have at least one reason or claim which both the speaker and members of the audience believe or hold in common. So clear is the agreement on the shared claim that it might not even be stated in the speech itself. Thus, the enthymeme is constructed or completed by rhetor and audience at the same time. Rhetoric in any settings is characterized by enthymemes. Three Rhetorical Settings Three kinds of speech--determined by the situation deliberative or political speech--intended to recommend a future course of action epideictic or ceremonial--intended to praise or blame a current state of affairs forensic or legal--intended to provoke judgment concerning past action Artistic Proofs an "artistic proof" was a means of persuasion or "proof" that belonged to the study or "art" of rhetoric. Aristotle contrasted these to "inartistic proofs," or means of persuasion--documents, for example-about which rhetoric offered no instruction. three artistic proofs, or proofs taught specifically by the art of rhetoric, are o logical reasoning (logos), o the names and causes of various human emotions (pathos), and o human character and goodness (ethos). Thus, like these other arts, rhetoric has its own subject matter: these three means of persuasion.
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Logos refers to proofs available in the words, arguments, or logic of a speech. It was the largely the study of arguments. Pathos is the psychology of emotion, or "putting the audience in the right frame of mind." Pathos is more than emotional appeals; it is an interest in emo...