Thursday Psych 3/22/2007 Emotional Development Emotions -require cognition; appraisal -physiological reactions -neural/brain reactions -hormones/ fight or flight -communicate internal states to others -move us to actions foundations of relationships: emotions are where relationships come from.
Components of emotional experience during development -Expression: faces, voices, words -how we show what we are feeling -Recognition -ability to recognize emotions as they are presented by others -Regulation -ability to keep emotions in check Expression: faces (focus of research in this area) -Darwin: "The expression of emotion in man and animals" (1872): Innate facial expressions (nativist theory) Faces--Ekman: Cross-cultural research -adults agree on which faces = happiness, anger, sadness, and disgust (even if no word) -universal set of expressions (nativist theory) Are emotions present at birth? Moms: 1 month old faces express joy, fear, anger, surprise, interest Izard: videos of infants, motion-arousing events Raters agreed on interest, joy, surprise, sadness, but not anger, disgust, contempt Can we know what infants are REALLY feeling? Negative emotions are harder to pick up than the positive emotions Positive emotions Newborns: smile in REM sleep -bursts of brain stem activity nd 2 week:smile when awake -uncorrelated with environment -same brain stem activity as before
endogenous smiles meaningless smiles without environmental interaction 3-8 weeks: increased smiles due to environment exogenous smiles -not really socially initiated Social smiling: reciprocally related to others smiles -2.5 to 3 months old -feedback loop 7 months or so: smile more at familiar faces Smiling and Nature/Nurture -blind children may not shift to social smiles -need reciprocal reactions -parents: feedback through touch -Nurture Premature infants smile late -at the appropriate gestational age -Nature (2 months premature, smile 2 months later in age from birth) Secondary emotions (self-conscious emotions) 18-24 months: embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt, and envy -must think about self and others -ability to compare and rate self and others -unlike primary emotions (which are direct responses to events) Pride and Shame -cognition and emotion: must distinguish between easy and hard, success and failure -3 year old: increased pride after success on hard tasks than on easy tasks -increased shame if failed the easier task as well Negative Emotions Initially, undifferentiated distress Stranger anxiety 6/7 month olds Often the first evidence of fear Emerges at around 6 or 7 months -unfamiliar people no longer provide comfort and pleasure in the same way as familiar people do Intensifies and last until about age 2 -variable across individuals and contexts Why does this start? Better recall memory (new vs. old events) Better categorization (trustable vs. non-trustable)
Greater needs when older, strangers dont know those needs Increased ability to signal needs prefer familiar responders Control/Predictability -infants are becoming more able to control their environments and strangers are unpredictable -12-13 month old: toy monkey with cymbals -one group: monkey noisy when baby presses button -other group: no control of cymbals, random noise -same amount of noise -increased distress in group without control over noise -fixed interval of noise less distress -it was predictable Separation anxiety -Distress experienced when separated from caregivers -increase from 8 to 13-15 month old, then declines -observed across many cultures Are separation anxiety and stranger anxiety the same? Similar Emotion recognition: Infant studies -categorization: -4-7 month old habituated to slides of different women with same expression -dishabituate to new expression -intermodal matching by 7 months -angry and happy soundtracks with films -look more at matching face Social Referencing -look at caretaker for indications of how to feel and act -guides behavior, requires emotion understanding -must be able to read the emotions of their caregiver
Psych 3/27/2007 Internal and external factors in emotional development Review sessions after break Tues 5-6 with TAs Wed 1-2 with Jenny Emotion understanding contd Can kids interpret emotions as they are told in stories? Micalson and Lewis: brief stories with pictures that purposely envoke emotions e.g...Felicias birthday or Felicia gets lost Asked how child in the story feels -even 2 year old get happiness (but not fear, sadness) -older kids get range of emotions Responding to others feelings Measuring concern Reactions to maternal distress -10-12 mo: unresponsive -12-16 mo: child shows distress -18 mo: approach person in distress -20-24 mo: comforting, verbal sympathy, help from others Emotion Regulation being able to control emotions and their reactions -young babies: sucking -relaxes muscles -induces sleep -example: helping fussy babies regulate -change diaper: contact! -swaddling: constant stimulation 2-6 yo: avoidance, distract self in order to not get upset (must learn to do these things) Emotional display rules -learning to be appropriate -until 3, kids cant hide feelings or lie -even 7-9 yo unreliable Internal Factors: individual differences Temperament Style of responding to the environment Attributes (p 393) Fearful distress: adjustment to new situations Irritable distress: fussiness, anger Attention span and persistence Activity level: amount of movement
Positive affect: approach, manageability Rhythmicity: regularity of bodily functions Measuring temp. Thomas and Chess: 1950s sample -parental questionnaires, longitudinal -identified behavioral traits -3 types of temp. Goldsmith et al: included behavioral observations -also EEG, cortisol, less bias than questionnaires Thomas and Chess: temperament types Easy (40%): predictable, positive, adaptable Difficult (10%): active, irritable, unpredictable Slow-to-warm-up (15%): inactive, moody, slow to adapt Other 35% ????? Temperament is fairly consistent Stability of Temp. -New Zealand study: negativity stable from 3-18 -Behavioral inhibition: high in fearful distress (being extremely shy) -Kagan: 4 mo (fussing, arousal) -extreme cases still shy at 7.5 years! Genetic Influences -Temp is seen very young -very little post-natal experience -Behavior genetics -twins: MZ more similar than DZ -adoptees dissimilar -Ethnic differences -Chinese-Amer babies more placid than Anglo, Afro, or Irish-Amer Problems with Temp -how many types? 3 or 5 or what -stability only modest -influenced by stability of environment -temp of child alters environment -nature and nurture interaction -circular pattern External Factors: Parenting Normative variations -Spoiling: responding too much -learned helplessness: responding too little -youre just going to stop trying -key is parental sensitivity
-different parenting for different temperament -no one right way to parent Normative variation: day care -quality is critical -teacher to child ratio, caregiver stability -NICHD study -buffer from poor parental care -can be negative effects if too much time -parental attitudes matter! Psych lecture 4/10/2007 External factors in emotional development: caregiving and attachment Exam on Thursday Attachment (A) -reciprocal ties btwn parents and infants -from interactions with caregivers: -synchronized routines, ways of relating -develops over time -big individual differences Bowlby: Attach. Theory Naturalistic observation -war orphans (WWII) -infants in orphanages -hospitalized toddlers 1940s institutions: 1:10 or 20 ratio of adults to kids -kids didnt have much of an opportunity to make attachments to caregiver -really young babies (under 6 months): typical development -smile, cry, babble -6-12 months: behavior changes -quiet, insensitive to others -high mortality rate -stopped trying to communicate or interact Bowlby: Evolutionary explanation -safety mechanism for exploring -cross species; imprinting -separation = possible danger -separation increases distress -closeness decreases distress -parent = secure base (social referencing) Pre-attachment: (0-6 weeks) needs close contact
Attach in the making: (to 6-8 months) familiar vs. new people Clear cut attachment: (to 18-24 months) caregiver as secure base Reciprocal relationships: internal working model of self and other Internal working model: a basis for initiating new relationships based on initial relationships Measuring attachment: Mary Ainsworth -Strange Situation paradigm for 1-2 year old -measures child-caregiver security -interaction, stranger anxiety, reunion Attachment Types -secure 65% -resistant 10%: dont explore, upset when mom leaves, ambivalent after return (mad) anxious -avoidant 20%: little distress when mom leaves, ignore after return -disorganized [Type D] 5-10%: confused, dazed, increased insecurity, dont know whats going on, freezing up, maybe scared of parent Non-Secure Attachment (the last three) -all show some avoidant/resistant behaviors -key is pattern of relating -type D behaviors not seen in other babies -dazed, frozen, stereotypies (autistic characteristics) Stability of attachment -for at least several months -stability of childs life? -family stress: secure less secure -applying IWM of self/other Consequences of attachment -2 year old problem solving -secure increases cooperation -3.5 year old -secure increases curiousity, increases teacher relationships -10-15 year old -secure increased social skills, decreased dependence on caregiver Individual Differences why? 1 - Quality of Caregiving -Secure A: quick response, positive affect, structured interactions. Driven by kids needs -Resistant A: inconsistent caregiving driven by parents needs -Avoidant A: rejecting or overstimulating caregiving
-Disorganized -5-10% are maltreated kids -85% of the maltreated kids are disorganized -babies drawn to, but fear, caregiver 2 Temperament -Kagan: Strange Situation measures T -easy T secure A -difficult T resistant A -slow to warm up T avoidant A Limitations of Temperament Hypothesis -kids can have diff attachment patterns with each parent -you wouldnt expect that if its only temperament -temperament interacts with parenting -parents of difficult T can learn to be more sensitive secure attachments 3 cultural influences -effects of child-rearing: -Kibbutz: 50% resistant, 37% secure -Germany: increased avoidant -ideal of independent infant -Japan: increased resistant, no avoidant -rarely left with strangers Is attachment a cultural construct? Atypical variations in parenting -Isolation -Abuse -Parental psychological issues Isolation work... Harlow: Animal model 1950s -baby monkeys in isolation -wire vs. cloth surrogate mothers -received milk from only one -prefer cloth mom to cling to but would switch in order to feed -poor outcomes -avoid other monkeys -abuse own babies -therapy: younger normal peers Human social deprivation -negative effects of early institutions (intl adoption project: Pollak)
-brain development -emotion understanding -,,emotion hormones -recovery: possible, not complete -age effects: get out early if possible Why? -multiple caregivers not just the problem -okay if enough staff -cultural variations in # of caregivers -contingencies between infant and adult behavior -if kid does something, theres a predictable effect of what they do -institutions: lack of control/predictability -learned helplessness: stop trying after awhile, give up
Psych 560
4/17/2007 T
Development of the self 24 months: end of infancy -terrible 2s -emerging autonomy -self-recognition -self-esteem -eventually, self-control Self-Recognition: how measure Gallup (1970): chimps in mirror -first, threatened -second, explored self -test: mark face w/ dye -explore in mirror? -they can recognize the mirror as their own self -see "self" in social and intelligent species Infant self-recognition: Rouge test 3-4months: little interest in front of mirror 10 months: reach for reflected toy 18-24 months: reach for rouge -same if mirror is novel in different cultures How does self recognition arise? -cognitive development, social experience Self-Concept in middle childhood -external attributes then by internal qualities 1 Categorical (4-7 years) -brown eyes, play baseball, Catholic, happy -these qualities fall into neat categories 2 Comparative (8-11 years) -bigger than others, good at school, upset easily -themselves as compared to others 3 Interpersonal implications (12-15 years) -give a quality and what those mean in life
Social Comparison is developing -increases around 8-9 years -why then? they start to spend increasing amounts of time with peers Ruble: athletic ability, 5-9 year old -ball into hidden hoop -each was told they were successful same amount
-3 groups: -relative success: others worse -relative failure: others better -control group: told only own score -9 year olds: rated self relative to others after test -5-7 year old didnt: all = control SELF-ESTEEM -evaluative aspect of self -how to measure? -younger than 7: social acceptance and general competence - 8+: physical and academic competence, appearance, likeability -peers>parents opinion value -chicken/egg again (whats causing the self-esteem) Is there a dip at adolescence? Yes: decline when multiple stressor pile up -suicide 3rd most common cause of death of this age No: most 11-14 year old show no decline -gradual increases over adolescence SELF-CONTROL -follow standards, even if you dont want to. -learning standards: rules etc... -14 months: play normally -19 months: "Yucky" Compliance -Kochanska: 2-3 year old, new toys -session 1: asked to put them away -responses: -committed compliance -situational compliance (+ common) -need prompting -defiance (not compliant, 10%) -session 2: play, mom says to avoid certain toys -mom leaves -responses -stable for kids across sessions -internalization of compliance Due to parent/child relationship? -firm w/ rationale: compliance -reasonable: committed -insensitive: situational -threatening or criticizing: defiance -relatively stable trait
Parental compliance: what kind of example does this father set for his kids? Achievement motivation: -willingness to strive -joy in mastery (<2 yo) -approval seeking (2-3): depends on others -use of own standards (3+) -pride and shame -achievement attributions -interpreting successes/failures locus of causality External Task difficulty luck
Internal Stable cause Unstable cause Own ability Effort (best)
Why is internal/unstable best? -only one you have control over -praise effort, not ability Risky pattern... -success external, failure internal -frustrated, little reason to improve helpless orientation -from punishing failures by parents -as early as 4-6 year olds Psych 4/19/2007 Research Project due NEXT FRIDAY!!!! Do this shit! Final exam room: Humanities 3650 5/17 - 7:45am ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND ATTRIBUTIONS Dweck: Middle-schoolers -Growth mindset vs Fixed Mindset -failures/successes due to unstable causes -mini course on neuroscience helped kids expand -growth mindset taught children that their minds can expand and thereby do better in school
Relating to others: Theory of mind TOM -the knowledge that other people dont know everything you know -testing TOM: false belief task -dont pass until 3-4 years -passing involves guessing whats in the box TOM and Autism -autistic kids lack TOM, cant take perspective of someone else -why? -controversial -other people would say that it is due to language or motor issue, not perspective Relationships -Toddlers: beginnings of friendships -more social play (as opposed to parallel play) -prefer toddlers to adults -prefer friends -more conflict with friends -why? Just beginning TOM and perspective issues -Pretend play ~18months -discover world risk-free -symbolic play -feeding pillow -driving a box -culturally conditioned -do what adults in that culture do -by 3, play more complex -dramatic play, planning -peaks at 6, coordinated fantasies -rigidity: signs of stress Play and Rules: Peers -play revolves around games and rules of those games -make those rules and inact those rules Peers as family -A. Freud 494-495 -Street kids Peer Acceptance -rate peers -even 3-5 year olds rate their peers (popularity of sorts) -types -popular: most positives
-rejected: most negatives (esp. aggressive) -neglected: liked or disliked by few -average -controversial: liked or disliked by many -Outlook -rejected kids more at risk -more school problems -psychological problems -chicken and egg? -reputational bias Stereotyping -negative outlooks by 3-4 years -race -gender -weight -attractiveness -how are inter-group attitudes formed? -Presence of salient difference? Bigler: camp, 6-9 year olds -blue or yellow t-shirt groups -functional use vs. non-functional use -function use: grouped by biological attribute -hair color vs random -after a month, measure attitudes -groups -individual peers -results: -functional use matters -larger difference of students peer ratings between groups -biological vs random assignment -looking at shirt not the attribute -more self esteem had more negative things about other groups ----by calling attention to things functionally, we are leading kids to make grouped differences for different attributes (race, sex, weight) In and Out Group Behavior Sherif(1953): "Robbers Cave" camp -11 year old boys strangers -middle class -bright -well adjusted -2 separate camps competition: hostilities emerged between camps
-flag burning, raids -socials between camps didnt work at all -cooperation task: fixed things -patterns changeable Sibling relationships and Aggression Aggression: -instrumental: as means to an end -to obtain a concrete goal -hostile: hurting others -relational: damage friendships, social status, self-esteem -instrumental btwn 1-2 years -18 months know to destroy sibs favorite stuff 2: possession: -wanting toy someone else wants -"winning" matters Girls: more relational A Social Learning Thoery -learn A from observation -Bandura(1965): "Bobo" doll -preschoolers saw aggressive adult model -conditions -model-rewarded -model-punished -no consequences -more aggression if adult is not punished -learn that aggression is acceptable from adults -cultural implications?
PunishmentAggression? Dodge(1994): kids entering kindergarten -parents: asked their disciplinary practices -6 months later: -kids at school -tracked # of aggressive acts -peer and teacher ratings -if harmed during discipline (12%): more aggression -hyper-responsive ambiguous events hostile interpretation Social Info-Processing -Dodge: reactive aggressors (retaliatory) -hostile attributional bias -expect hostility from others -looking for excuse to be aggressive
Gene/environment interactions Moffit and Caspis New Zealand study -maltreated boys if genes coded for MAOA enzyme, LESS likely to have antisocial problems -genes protect against environment -RESILIENCE Psych 560 4/24/2007 Questions of morality -recent incidents raise questions about prosocial and antisocial behavior -how do childrens thinking and behavior contribute to morality? Core concepts of moral judgment 1. reasoning behind a behavior is critical for determining whether a given behavior is moral or immoral 2. changes in moral reasoning form the basis or moral development Jean Piaget vs Lawrence Kohlberg (both took cognitive developmental approach) Piaget Theory of Moral Judgment -childrens moral reasoning changes from rigidly following the rules of authority to understanding the moral rules result from social interactions and can sometimes be changed -research methods -observation of childrens games -stories in which children had to judge the naughtiness of characters Morality of Constraint: characterizes moral reasoning of children who have no yet reached concrete operations -see rules and duties as unchangeable givens established by adult -believe that what determines whether action good or bad is consequence, not motive Transition Period From about age 7 or 8 to age 10 -peer interaction increases: children learn that group can make rules and increasingly learn to take one anothers perspective -allows children to become more autonomous in their thinking about moral issues Autonomous Morality: by about age 11 or 12, moral relativism emerges, with all normal children reaching this stage -understand that rules can be changed if group agrees -consider fairness and equality among people as important factors in constructing rules
-consider individuals motives when evaluating their behavior Critique of Piagets TMD -Piagets general view of moral development has been supported by empirical research -some aspects have no held up well -young children can sometimes consider intentions in judging behavior -morality not always based on authorities Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Judgment -strongly influenced by Piaget -cognitive development leads to moral development -qualitatively distinct stages in invariant order -method: presented children with hypothetical moral dilemmas and then questioned them about their moral judgments; interested in reasoning Proposed three levels of moral judgment: 1. Preconventional: concerned with self; get rewards and avoid punishment 2. Conventional: centered on social relationships 3. Postconventional: concerned with ideals and moral principles; few people reach -each level involves two stages of moral judgment Preconventional Level: Stage 1 Punishment and obedience orientation -right = obedience authorities to -motivated to avoid punishment -child does not consider interests of others or recognize that they differ from his or her own interests Stage 2 Instrumental and exchange orientation -right = what is in own best interest; may involve equal exchange Conventional Level: Stage 3 Good Girl, Nice Boy Orientation -right do what is expected by people close to oneself or what is expected in a given role -concerned with goodness should have good motives, show concern for others, and maintain good relationships Stage 4 Social System and Conscience orientation -right = fulfill ones duties, uphold laws, and contribute to society -motivated to maintain functioning of social system Postconventional Level: Stage 5 Social contract or individual rights orientation -right = uphold rules that are impartial, were decided by group, and that are in best interest of the group
-some values and rights, such as life and liberty, are universally right and should be upheld regardless of majority opinion Stage 6 Universal Ethical Principles -right = commitment to self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles of justice -when laws violate these principles, should follow principles rather than law Kohlbergs TMJ -likely universal process and somewhat invariant stage order but few pople reach advanced stages -moral development mirrors cognitive development, especially individuals skills in perspective-taking -some relation between reasoning and behavior Criticism of Kohlbergs Theory -only developed on males -Gilligan: Kohlbergs classification of moral judgment is centered on principles of justice and rights; argues that this is more typical of males and that females place more value on caring and responsibility for others -little evidence that males and females score differently on Kohlbergs stages of moral reasoning -may reflect a biased, intellectualized Western conception of morality that is not applicable to non-Western cultures -moral reasoning development may not be discontinuous
Prosocial Moral Judgment -voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing, and providing comfort -Eisenberg presented children with stories in which the characters must choose between helping someone and meeting their own needs -identified five stages of prosocial moral reasoning similar to Kohlbergs stages the 5 stages: (Ch. 14) 1. hedonistic self-focused orientation a. concerned with own interests rather than with moral considerations b. considerations of direct personal gain, future reciprocation, and concern for other based on need or affection 2. Needs-based orientation 3. Approval & stereotyped orientation 4. Self-reflective empathic orientation Transitional Level 5. Strongly internalized stage -stages found in a variety of Western cultures but some cultural variation
-with age, judgments become more abstract and more concerned with internalized principles and values -children who use higher-level reasoning tend to be more sympathetic and prosocial than children who use lower-level reasoning
Domains of Social Judgment (Turiel) -Moral Judgments: decisions that pertain to issues of right and wrong, fairness, and justice -Social conventional judgments: decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organization -Personal judgments: decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main considerations -children begin to differentiate between moral and social conventional issues as early as age 3 -children and adolescents believe that parents have authority over moral and social conventional issues but not over matters of personal judgements Conscience: an internal regulatory mechanism that increases the individuals ability to conform with standards of conduct accepted in his or her culture -conscience of young child: -likely reflects internalized parental standards -can evoke certain emotions -influences behavior when others are not present Development of Conscience -children develop a conscience slowly over time -2 years: begin to understand moral standards and rules and to exhibit guilt when do something wrong -children more likely to internalize parents moral values if parents use rational explanations -temperament may influence development of conscience -fearful children experience more guilt; benefit from gentle discipline -fearless children benefit from positive parent-child relationships
Prosocial Behavior -children differ in how often they engage in prosocial behaviors and their reasons for doing so -some developmental consistency in childrens prosocial behaviors Altruistic Prosocial Behavior -origins of altruistic prosocial behavior rooted in the capacity to feel empathy and sympathy
-Empathy: emotional reaction to anothers emotional state that is simlar to that persons state or condition -Sympathy is the feeling of concern -Empathy and sympathy require ability to take anothers perspective -infants respond to others distress, but may not differentiate between others emotional reactions and their own -at about age 2, children begin to make this distinction -Ages 2-3: frequency and variety of prosocial behaviors increase, but children not always prosocial -Childrens prosocial behaviors increase from the preschool years to adolescence Individual Differences -genetic factors contribute modestly to individual differences in prosocial behaviors -genetic effects may arise indirectly from differences in temperament -emotional reactivity, assertiveness -primary environmental influence is childrens socialization in the family -the values parents convey to their children may influence not only whether children are prosocial but also toward whom they are prosocial
Antisocial Behavior Aggression: behavior aimed at harming or injuring others -instrumental or relational -a form of antisocial behavior Development of Aggression -physical aggression emerges ~ 18 months and increases until 2 or 3, then decreases -verbal aggression increases -instrumental aggression common among preschoolers -physical aggression declines during preschool and grade school years -children learn to resolve conflicts and control emotions -verbal and relational aggression increase -some children develop serious problems with hostile aggression and other antisocial behavior -peak in violence during adolescence -children who are aggressive and prone to conduct problems in middle childhood tend to be aggressive and delinquent in adolescence
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): a clinical disorder characterized by angry, defiant behavior that is age inappropriate and persistent
Conduct Disorder (CD): includes more antisocial and aggressive behaviors that inflict pain on others or involve property destruction; frequently accompanied by persistent school truancy or running away from home before age 13 Biological Origins of Aggression -bio factors contribute but likely interact with social factors -bio explanations -difficult temperament -mixed evidence regarding hormones -neurobiological deficits -other genetically based risk... Social Origins of Aggression Family -effects of harsh parenting vary by culture -abusive parenting -ineffective parenting -inconsistent, low monitoring -verbal or physical violence between parents -low SES increased stress, less effective parenting, fewer resources Biology and socialization jointly influence antisocial behavior and likely interact...
Psych 560 4/26/2007 guest lecturer Paper due in jennys mailbox on 2nd floor or during discussion Gender Development Infancy, preschool, middle childhood, adolescence Theories
Infancy -learn about categories of gender (male and female) -by 6 months, infants distinguish btwn male and female voices -by 9 months, distinguish btwn male/female faces -gender differences in behavior? -activity level: boys more active -gender similarities are more common than differences! -adult socialization effects on genders -differential treatment? -usually similar -but fathers do tend to rough-house with boys than girls Preschool Years -gender learning -by age 2, kids have a concept of gender identity (know which one they are)
-within months can tell what other people are -gender constancy (5-6 years of age) -means kids understand that gender is permanent and unchanging -motivates kids to conform to gender roles -can associate some occupations with men and others with women -policeMAN, nurse, -are observing the gender segregation of adult occupations -behavioral gender differences -continues from infancy -you see differences in physically aggressive behavior (boys more) -differences in toy and role preference -boys prefer active games, trucks, etc. -girls prefer dolls, and quieter games -gender socialization -parents encourage gender typed preferences -mothers talked more and used supportive speech with daughters more than sons Middle Childhood Gender segregation toy/game preference -kids tend to segregate themselves -this promotes more segregation as it looks bad if you go against it -gender socialization -parent influence continues -increasing peer influence -name calling, enforce gender role norms rigidly -schools can also influence in subtle ways -media another influence -"old" media, books etc, less gender stereotyped since the 1970s -"new" media, tv etc, are incredibly stereotyped moreso than 70s books -"new" media makers are very rigid and unchanging -correlate tv viewing with amount of gender attitudes, direct positive relationship Adolescence -gender intensification: pressures for gender conformity intensify -parents, peers, both -increase femininity, increase masculinity -heterosexual interests and quasi-dating -this partly reverses gender segregation -groups hanging out together -still very strong socialization towards gender roles -for girls strong emphasis on appearance -boys figure out athleticism is important for getting girls -emphasis pushing heterosexuality, based on social norms -emphasizes gender norms -peer sexual harassment and victimization
-peers harassing each other -btwn 8th and 11th grade, 79% of boys and 83% of girls experienced it -study counted: sexual touching, forced kissing, sexual rumors -girls are more upset by it -gender differences in depression in adolescents -twice as many women are depressed to men (adulthood) -cross-cultural -in childhood, girls are no more depressed than boys, little gender difference -difference emerges btwn 13-15 years old -more girls than boys -solution looked at developmentally for why theres a difference -puberty -pubertal hormones (testosterone, progesterone, estrogen) -mixed findings -pubertal timing: early, on time, late -early is bad for girls, good for boys -early pubertal girls are harassed more -body image and self esteem -puberty changes push girls away from ideal, boys towards it -negative life events, do girls experience more? -more girls are sexually abused.... -more girls experience interpersonal negative events -social learning theory -imitation and observational learning -gender schema theory: general knowledge framework of a gender, processes and organizes information on the basis of gender
Psych 5/1/2007 Tuesday Defining, Describing and Demystifying Autism Guest lecture: Gernsbacher -affectionate? -did clothing tags bother him? Parts of his skin were hypersensitive -play with toys? Challenges with imaginary play-false -using an object to represent something else -the three above questions were the peditricians way to assess if Drew was autistic -invented his own gesture system -Drew may have been able to read since he was 2.5 years old -by age 6 he had been converted to a 8.5x11 from the poster boards -intellectual age of 22 at 4th grade ---------------------------------------------What is autism? PDD pervasive developmental disorders Qualitative developmental differences in language, social, and motor skills Triad of Impairments: -communication/language/speech -social interaction -repetitive movements or expressions -may also experience sensitivities in the five sense -sensorimotor problems can make it difficult to respond consistently and productively to other individuals -are able to relate well to caregivers but not to other children, as caregivers can anticipate the needs of the child How common is autism? Why is autism increasing? -identify children earlier -avg Dane county age of diagnosis is 2 or 3 -15 years ago avg age was 7 -20 years old it was 10 -use term autism for other terms -identify milder symptoms How is autism diagnosed? -behavioral criteria -based from the DSM-4TR 6 or more symptoms 3 categories -at least: -2 from first category
-1 from 2nd category -1 from 3rd category google the categories from DSM4tr Autistic Disorder Aspergers Disorder PDD not otherwise specified (NOS) Aspergers requires only impairments in social interaction and repetitive movements PDD-NOS is a threshold criteria How many cases are the milder cases 15,500 children, 2.5 to 6.5 years autistic 16.8 per 10000 aspergers 8.4 per 10000 NOS 36.1 per 10000 All autism 61.3 per 10000
4x more prevalent in boys than girls no racial, ethnic, or social boundaries (confounds) SES levels dont affect chances What causes autism? -arises from differences in brain development, structure, or function -mostly unknown -MRI scans -seems to be gene linked -sibling recurrence risk -roughly 50-100fold risk of autism -only 2 twin studies for autism -very heritable linked data What can we do about autism? Support
PSYCH 5/3/2007 Atypical Development PDD Autism -differences seen early in life -span areas of functioning -may or may not be accompanied by low IQ Mental Retardation -sub-average intellectual functioning < 70 IQ (2 SD) -measured by IQ test, so hard for young children -Also challenges in adaptive functioning how you adapt as you grow and age -conceptual -social -practical -onset < 18 years -Epidemiology -IQ alone: should be 2.3% -if include problems with adaptive functioning, < 1% -Etiology -known biological difference (eg: Down syndrome): 25% -expected variations in IQ -cultural-familial variations: under-stimulation by caretakers Treatment -primary prevention: biological -avoid teratogens -parents age (amniocentesis: genetic testing) -secondary prevention: cultural-familial -early intervention: increase IQ -Head Start -tertiary prevention -social & emotional needs -high risk of depression in Downs -normalization -mainstreaming: inconsistencies in support -de-institutionalization: better care Williams Syndrome -rare genetic disorder -brain structure -abnormal arrangement of neurons -decreased myelinization -near normal language, but low IQ
-extremely sociable -highly musical -cant do conservation tasks -poor spatial skills -poor eyesight -heart and digestive problems -unable to learn more though they want to Pervasive DD: Autism, MR, WS social problems, academic problems, language problems Learning and Attentional Disorders: specific academic problems social problems Learning Disabilities -largest school special needs group -heterogeneous -may be fine except in one subject (math, reading, writing) -Defining LD: "substantial discrepancy between academic achievement and intellectual ability" -LD versus slow learners -Dyslexia: 4% of school aged kids -good listening comprehension -problem with sound-symbol decoding -getting the word off the page -some genetic basis MZ > DZ -more boys and than girls -characteristics of dyslexia -poor phoneme awareness -counting phonemes, break up words into component parts -challenge reading new words/ non-words -slow readers -interventions: phonological strategies ADHD 3-5% (males 6x more likely) -impulsivity: acting before thinking -hyperactivity: restlessness -greatly noticeable at school -inattention -especially sustained attention -not intentional
Treatment -behavioral therapy -Pyscho-stimulants: Ritalin, Aderol 1-2% of school aged population Improvement for 75% Why stimulants? Combination -helps them concentrate by stimulating focus and concentration ADHD developmentally -young: temper tantrums, conduct problems -old: underachieve at school -same disorder over age? Maybe not Solutions: tailoring educational experiences to the child?
Psych 5/8/2007 T 90 questions on Final Developmental Psychopathology What is normal? Abnormal depends upon developmental expectations Dev. Psychopathology -change or lack thereof over time -what behaviors are changeable and what arent -context -when are different behaviors appropriate -patterns of adaptation -where are these adaptations acceptable and useful Typical vs. Atypical 1- Development Are there really childhood psychological disorders? Are they different from adult disorders? Who seeks treatment? -adults seek it themselves -childrens parents seek treatment -Quiet disorders are noticed less -internal issues wouldnt get treatment 2- Development Freuds problem -cant tell whats wrong with a child in clinical setting
Fearful temperament Can turn out to be: sensitive/empathic, shy, or anxiety disorder Multifinality: multiple ends for one starting points How to prevent/protect? -what can be done to direct kids in the right direction
Fearful temperament Maltreatment Traumatic Event
all can lead to anxiety disorder
Equifinality: many pathways to any given outcome What risk factors can be altered?
Is self-esteem a dependent or independent variable? -is it from the child, or due to the childs experience/environment Hierarchic Motility -later stages of development build upon previous successes ___ ________ _______________ -have to find roots of complex behaviors 3. Development How do we determine when development has gone awry (transient vs. long term) -What do we measure? -persistance of symptoms -change focus of support and behavior -Who do we ask? -ask parents Parents agree very well. Parents and teachers dont entirely agree. Parent and kid agree even less. Over age, kids increase in test-retest reliability. Parents become less reliable as child grows older. Very hard to figure out where kids are coming from. Classification of Childhood Disorders -Narrow Band -Broad Band
Narrow band is normally used for diagnosing adults. Broad band is used for kids, and lumps things together. Narrow Band examples: -depression -school phobia -aggression Broad Band examples: -internalizing disorder -externalizing disorder Internalizing Disorders: affect the childs internal world -makes themselves unhappy Externalizing disorders: failure to control behavior; affects childs external world -others suffer -dont really suffer so much themselves -see it as the parents making them be bad or interfering Why do we use a separate system for work with kids? 3 reasons: 1. Children do not interpret and experience events like we do. 2. Interpreting kids behavior depends on developmental norms and context. 3. Comorbidity: 12% of kids suffer from a mental disorder (60% have 1+) Conduct disorder -repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior -violates basic rights of others Keep in mind many kids engage in bad behaviors But...for most, these behaviors: 1. decrease with age 2. are not a pervasive pattern Destructive versus non-destructive behaviors Covert versus Overt behaviors Common features in early childhood: -high impulsivity -high need for stimulation -low empathy -immature moral/cognitive development -troubled interpersonal relationships -coercive parenting patterns become automatic
Many kids who are diagnosed with conduct disorder are under stimulated and looking to make trouble in order to arouse themselves. By coercion, kid learns that if he persists enough then he can get what he wants done by behaving a certain way (e.g. temper tantrums, crying) Coercion often not recognized by family. -families and parents will make excuses to explain it Parents frustration and negative affect undermines problem solving. more upset, less efficient at managing family
Developmental Progression Early school truancy, school failure, lying Mid school stealing, discipline problems Jr. high early alcohol use, early onset of sexual activity High school school suspension/expulsion, drug use Adulthood arrests Stealing in early schools 75% go on to commit violent crimes Developmental Factors: -poor impulse control (suppressing immediate urges) -poor verbal abilities -stressful social environment, poverty, lack of adult support Development experience + biology
Psych 5/10/2007 Review sessions T 1230-200 room 101 W 200-330 room 101 Exam: Humanities 3650 R 745am Nature vs nurture Continuity vs change Competence vs performance Development is multi-determined Predictiveness matters -parenting -language learning -social development
Variability -typical vs atypical -what is normal? -cultural differences Learning vs. Development -Piaget -Post-Piaget -Vygotsky -Chomsky Cascading effects of development -chicken and egg -parenting -temperament and attachment -Williams Syndrome tiny differences become larger and larger What surprised me? Applied research vs Basic Research Basic Research Questions -Educational Issues -Mental Health Issues -Legal Issues -Sociopolitical Issues -Medical Issues -Modern complexities: genetic testing and Downs -90% of fetuses that test positive for Downs are aborted. -psychiatric drugs and kids -Family Issues -Parenting Issues -handling challenges -Humanitarian Issues -how can we better understand and respect people who are different from us? The Velveteen Rabbit