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101 Econ Lecture 12 A Note on the Firm's Shut-Down Condition It might seem that a firm that can sell as much output as it wishes at a constant market price would always do best in the short run by producing and selling the output level for which price equals marginal cost. But there are exceptions to this rule. Suppose, for example, that the market price of the firm's product falls so low that its revenue from sales is smaller than its variable cost at all possible levels of output. The firm should then cease production for the time being. By shutting down, it will suffer a loss equal to its fixed costs. But by remaining open, it would suffer an even larger loss. If P denotes the market price of the product and Q denotes the number of units produced and sold, then PxQ is the firm's total revenue from sales, and if we use VC to denote the firm's variable cost, the rule is that the firm should shut down in the short run if PxQ is less than VC for every level of Q. Average Variable Cost and Average Total Cost Suppose that the firm is unable to cover its variable cost at any level of output--that is, suppose that PxQ < VC for all levels of Q. Then P < VC/Q for all levels of Q, since we obtain the second inequality by simply dividing both sides of the first one by Q. VC/Q = average variable cost--its variable cost divided by its output. The firm's short-run shut-down condition may thus be restated a second way--namely, discontinue operations in the short run if the product price is less than the minimum value of its average variable cost (AVC). Short-run shut-down condition (alternate version): P < minimum value of AVC Average total cost: ATC = TC/Q. Profit = total revenue (PxQ) total cost = PxQ ATCxQ A firm can be profitable only if the price of its product price (P) exceeds its ATC for some level of output. A Graphical Approach to Profit-Maximization For Louisville Slugger, we have Employees per day Bats per day Variable cost ($/day) Average variable cost ($ per unit of output) Total cost ($/day) Average total cost ($ per unit of output) Marginal cost ($/bat) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 40 100 130 150 165 175 181 0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 0.60 0.48 0.554 0.64 0.727 0.823 0.928 80 0.60 104 128 152 176 200 224 248 2.60 0.40 1.28 0.80 1.169 1.20 1.173 1.60 1.21 2.40 1.28 4.00 1.37 2 Properties of the cost curves: 1. The upward sloping portion of the marginal cost curve (MC) corresponds to the region of diminishing returns. Thus, as the firm moves beyond two employees per day (100 bats per day), the increments to total output become smaller with each additional employee, which means that the cost of producing additional bats (MC) must be increasing in this region. 2. The definition of marginal cost implies that the marginal cost curve must intersect both the average variable cost curve (AVC) and the average total cost curve (ATC) at their respective minimum points. (The reason is similar to the logic that explains what happens to the average weight of a third grade class when a new student joins the class.) Price = Marginal Cost: The Maximum-Profit Condition In earlier examples, we implicitly assumed that the firm could employ workers only in whole number amounts. Under these conditions, we saw that the profit-maximizing output level was one for which marginal cost was somewhat less than price (because adding yet another employee would have pushed marginal cost higher than price). But when output and employment can be varied continuously, the maximum-profit condition is that price be equal to marginal cost. Example 12.1. For the bat-maker whose cost curves are shown below, find the profit-maximizing output level if bottles sell for $0.80 each. How much profit will this firm earn? What is the lowest price at which this firm would continue to operate in the short run? $/bat 1.40 1.32 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.48 0.40 0.28 80 100 130 Bats/day 150 Price MC ATC AVC The cost-benefit principle tells us that this firm should continue to expand as long as price is at least as great as marginal cost. 3 If the firm follows this rule it will produce 130 bottles per day, the quantity at which price and marginal cost are equal. Suppose that the firm had sold some amount less than 130--say, only 100 bats per day. Its benefit from expanding output by one bat would then be the bat's market price, 80 cents. The cost of expanding output by one bottle is equal (by definition) to the firm's marginal cost, which at 100 bats per day is only 40 cents. So by selling the 101st bat for 80 cents and producing it for an extra cost of only 40 cents, the firm will increase its profit by 80 40 = 40 cents per day. In a similar way, we can show that for any quantity less than the level at which price equals marginal cost, the seller can boost profit by expanding production. Conversely, suppose the that firm were currently selling more than 130 bats per day--say, 150--at a price of 80 cents each. Marginal cost at an output of 150 is 1.32 per bat. If the firm then contracted its output by one bat per day, it would cut its costs by 1.32 cents while losing only 80 cents in revenue. As a result, its profit would grow by 52 cents per day. The same arguments can be made regarding any quantities that differ from 130. Thus, if the firm were selling fewer than 130 bats per day, it could earn more profit by expanding; and that if it were selling more than 130, it could earn more by contracting. So at a market price of 80 cents per bat, the seller maximizes its profit by selling 130 units per week, the quantity for which price and marginal cost are exactly the same. At that quantity the firm will collect total revenue of PxQ = ($0.80/bat)x(130 bats/day) = $104 per day. Its total costs are equal to ATCxQ = $0.48/bat x 130 bats/day = 62.40 So the firm's profit is $41.60/day. $/bat MC ATC AVC 0.80 Profit = $41.60/day 0.48 Price 130 Bats/day Profit is equal to (P ATC)xQ, which is equal to the area of the shaded rectangle. SUPPLY AND PRODUCER SURPLUS The economic surplus received by a buyer is called consumer surplus. The analogous construct for a seller is producer surplus, the difference between the price a seller actually receives for the product and the lowest price for which she would have been willing to sell it (her reservation price, which in general will be her marginal cost). Producer surplus sometimes refers to the surplus received by a single seller in a transaction, sometimes to the total surplus received by all sellers in a market or collection of markets. Calculating Producer Surplus Example 12.2. How much do sellers benefit from their participation in the market for cashews? 4 Price ($/lb) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 S D 12 16 20 24 Quantity (1000s of lbs/day) For all cashews sold up to 8,000 pounds per day, sellers receive a surplus equal to the difference between the market price of $8 per pound and their reservation price as given by the supply curve. Total producer surplus received by buyers in the cashew market is the area of the shaded triangle between the supply curve and the market price. (1/2)(8,000 lbs/day)x($8/lb) = $32,000/day. Price ($/lb) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 S D 12 16 20 24 Quantity (1000s of lbs/day) Producer surplus is the highest price sellers would pay, in the aggregate, for the right to continue participating in the cashew market. Supply is About Marginal Cost Example 12.3. An electric utility has two means of generating power: A hydroelectric generator A coal-fired steam turbine The hydroelectric generator runs without maintenance cost and can supply 1000 kilowatt-hours each day. All additional power is supplied by the steam generator at a cost of 10 cents per kilowatt-hour. The utility currently produces 2000 kilowatt-hours each day. How much does it cost to serve a house that happens to be hooked up to the hydro generator? If a house that is currently hooked to the hydro generator were to be disappear, some other house that is now hooked up to the steam generator could be switched to hydro, for a savings of 10 cents per kilowatt-hour. Thus the opportunity cost of all power is the cost of the most expensive source currently in use, namely 10 cents/kwh. Draw the marginal cost curve for this utility. Price (cents/kwh) 10 Marginal Cost 1000 Quantity (kwh/day) Does demand ever affect supply? Example 12.8. Is the cost of a ticket to the NBA finals so high because the salaries of NBA players is so high? Partly. But then why are the wages of NBA players so high? Because so many people are willing to pay so much to be able to watch them. 5 But a starving person would be willing to pay even more for food than for watching an NBA game. Food is cheap and NBA games are expensive because many people can produce food, but only few have the skills to play in the NBA. Joe Durso: 8-time national handball champion. Earnings from handball related activities during last championship season: $0. Shaquille O'Neal: NBA star extraordinaire. Earnings from basketball-related activities during last championship season: $25,000,000. Supply depends on costs and costs always depend on demand. In many (perhaps most) cases the prices of the inputs required to produce a product will not be much affected by the demand for that product. For example, the demand for bicycles will have no significant affect on the price of steel, an input for making bicycles, because the steel used in making bicycles is only a tiny fraction of the total amount of steel sold. So for most markets, we can assume that a shift in the demand curve will not lead to a shift in the supply curve. Assume this independence, unless otherwise stated.
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101-13_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Econ 101 Lecture 13 Markets allocate scarce goods and services on the basis of willingness to pay. Similarly, cost-benefit analysis resolves public decisions on the basis of willingness to pay. Is that a good thing to do? Doesn\'t willingness-to-pay ...
101-14_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Economics 101 Lecture 14 Calculating Total Economic Surplus Consumer surplus: the difference between the most a buyer would have been willing to pay for a product and the amount it actually costs her. Producer surplus: the difference between what a c...
101-15_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Economics 101 Lecture 15 Example 15.1. For the supply and demand curves shown, suppose a tax of $6/lb is levied on sellers. What share of the burden of this tax be borne by buyers? By sellers? Price ($/lb) 18 S 6 0 Quantity 12 18 (millions of lb/mon...
101-16_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Economics 101 Lecture The rationing function of price: to distribute scarce goods to those consumers who value them most highly. The allocative function of price: to direct resources away from overcrowded markets and toward markets that are underserv...
101-17_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Econ 101 Lecture 17 The Perfectly Competitive Firm Is a Price Taker (Recap) The perfectly competitive firm has no influence over the market price. It can sell as many units as it wishes at that price. Typically, a \"perfectly\" competitive industry is ...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: NCC 502 Lecture 13 Does the fact that perfect competition is socially efficient and monopoly is not mean that we should outlaw monopoly? Suppose the monopoly in question is the result of a patent that prevents all but one firm from manufacturing a hi...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Econ 101 Lecture 19 Games and Strategic Behavior Thus far, we have viewed economic decision makers as confronting an environment that is essentially passive. But there exist many cases in which relevant costs and benefits depend not only on the behav...
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Path: Wisconsin >> SOC WK >> 206 Spring, 2004
Description: There has been an ongoing political debate over what to do about the problems with our current Social Security program. Before I explain what some of the problems and proposed solutions are, let me start with a background on Social Security. In 1935,...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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101-22_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: 1 Econ 101 Lecture 22 The Tragedy of the Commons Example 22.1. A village has five residents, each of whom has accumulated savings of $100. Each villager has two investment opportunities: 1. Buy government bond for $100 that pays 12% interest per year...
101-21_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Econ 101 Lecture 21 Externalities Sometimes costs or benefits that result from an activity accrue to people not directly involved in the activity. These are called external costs or external benefits- externalities for short. Example 21.1. Sara is an...
101-23_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Econ 101 Lecture 23 Information and Search Example 23.1. Suppose you want a new tennis racquet, but aren\'t sure which brand & model to buy. Dick\'s has a large selection, so you go there and ask a salesperson for advice. After some discussion about yo...
101-24_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Econ 101 Lecture 24 Communication Between Potential Adversaries When a toad and his rival vie for the same mate, each faces an important strategic decision. Should he fight for her or set off in search of another? To fight is to risk injury. But to c...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Econ 101 Lecture 26 Winner-Take-All Markets People\'s incomes differ because of differences in their \"human capital,\" an amalgam of education, training, experience, intelligence, energy, and other personal attributes that affect productivity. These fa...
101-25_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Econ 101 Lecture 25 Wage and Salary Determination Example 25.1. Brady\'s Brick Company is one of hundreds of small firms that hire labor to mould bricks out of clay, which are then sold in the world market for ten cents apiece. Brady\'s only costs are ...
101-27_07
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Engle Memorial Lecture May 2, 2000 Robert H. Frank Most of us were taught from an early age not to worry about how our incomes compare with the incomes of others. This sensible advice stems from the observation that since there will always be others ...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Use the following diagram in questions 1 through 4. Figure 1: Peanut Market Price ($/bag) 24 20 16 12 8 4 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 D Quantity (1000s of bags/day) S 1. Suppose the peanut market is in equilibrium. The government is considering a ban on the produ...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Cornell University Department of Economics Economics 101 Final Examination Professor R.H. Frank Spring 2005 Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer. (3 points each) On the bubble sheet, fill in the best response for each question 2 QUESTIONS 1-2 ...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Cornell University Department of Economics Your name_ Fall 2007 Prof. R.H. Frank Your signature_ Your TA\'s name_ Economics 101 First Preliminary Examination (Makeup) For each of the 20 multiple-choice questions below, circle the best response IN...
101_plim_1-07_Q_A
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Cornell University Department of Economics Your name_ Spring 2007 Prof. R.H. Frank Your signature_ Your TA\'s name_ Economics 101 First Preliminary Examination For each of the 20 multiple-choice questions below, circle the best response. 1. At p...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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101_Sample_Final_Q_05
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Economics 101 Sample Final Examination QUESTIONS 1-2 REFER TO THE DIAGRAM BELOW. $ 6 0 4 5 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 5 1 5 2 0 Q a tity un 3 0 4. M C Richard and Charlotte are prospectors for gold. If they search in different locations, they will both be rewa...
101_PS14_ans_03
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: hf h tb hfb p wGqiggbfGrfeViewgb}dGergtdeyby}qrheyb}d E vytGeGy`e`e5gheyyecE dgxGrfeVrpefergtGeGeycw%vytqf5g`e3gqdyhrfqghyGgx f h b b b d h f tb p f b x h h b x t x t t b h t f fb f xf h d f p h h h rfdrff5...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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101_prelim_2_07_Q_A_final_edit
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Cornell University Department of Economics Spring 2007 Professor R. H. Frank Your name_ Your signature_ Your TA\'s name_ Your section number and meeting time_ Economics 101 Second Preliminary Examination For each of the 20 multiple-choice questions...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Cornell University 1998 Department of Economics Frank Your name_ Your signature_ Your TA\'s name_ Economics 101 First Preliminary Examination For each of the 20 multiple-choice questions below, circle the best response IN INK. Each question is worth 3...
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
Description: Cornell University Professor R.H. Frank d. $96 per week. e. None of the above. Economics 101 Sample Second Preliminary Examination Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer. (3 points each) On this sheet, circle, in ink, the best response for each q...
101_PS13_ans_03
Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Cornell >> ECON >> 1110 Spring, 2007
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Path: Wisconsin >> ANATOMY >> 328 Spring, 2008
Description: Anatomy 328 Third Unit - Practice Exam Spring 2007 1. Which of these hormones travels through the pituitary portal system to stimulate cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland? A. oxytocin B. releasing hormones C. ADH D. both A and C 2. Whic...
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Path: Wisconsin >> ZOOLOGY >> 466 Spring, 2008
Description: Name:- Genetics 466: exam 2 General Genetics 466 Spring 2008 Exam II KEY Please write your name on each page before starting the exam Content of exam II 2 questions: matching phrases to terms/concepts (18 points total) 8 multiple-choice questions...
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Path: Wisconsin >> ZOOLOGY >> 466 Spring, 2008
Description: Gen 466 exam 1, 2.14.2008 Your name _ Genetics 466 exam #1. 1. Choose the best matching phrase in the right column for each of the terms in the left column. Write the corresponding number in the parenthesis after the term (1.5 pts each, 15 pts total...
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Path: Wisconsin >> ZOOLOGY >> 466 Spring, 2008
Description: Gen 466 exam 1, 2.9.2006 Your name _ Genetics 466 exam #1. 1. Choose the best matching phrase in the right column for each of the terms in the left column. Write the corresponding number in the parenthesis after the term. (7 pts) a. phenotype ( 5 ) ...
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Path: Wisconsin >> ZOOLOGY >> 466 Spring, 2008
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Path: Wisconsin >> ANATOMY >> 328 Spring, 2008
Description: Unit 1 Sample Exam 1. The head of the individual indicated by the arrow has been sectioned using a _ plane. a) horizontal/transverse b) coronal/frontal c) sagittal ANATOMY 328 2. Choose the INCORRECT matching of lay terms and anatomical terms: a) s...
SampleExam2
Path: Wisconsin >> ANATOMY >> 328 Spring, 2008
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Path: Wisconsin >> SOC >> 441 Spring, 2006
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Path: Wisconsin >> SOC >> 441 Spring, 2006
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Path: Michigan State University >> ENG >> 260 Spring, 2008
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Path: Michigan State University >> ENG >> 260 Spring, 2008
Description: 1 Theodore Roethke\'s Waltz The poem \"My Papa\'s Waltz\" by Theodore Roethke cleverly describes dancing between a narrator and his or her father. The narrator mentions ambiguous traits about the father, leaving one to wonder about the author\'s true und...
P1 WC
Path: Texas A&M >> ENGL >> 1301 Spring, 2008
Description: Smith 5 Work Cited Paul, Ellen Frankel and Jeffrey Paul, eds. Why Animal Experimentation Matters: The Use of Animals in Medical Research. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2001. Pizer, H.F. and The Massachusetts General Hospital Organ Transplan...
P2
Path: Texas A&M >> ENGL >> 1301 Spring, 2008
Description: Smith 1 Sam Smith Professor Otto English 1301 6-10-2007 Angle of Vision: Nuclear Power When you read an article in a magazine or a newspaper, do you entirely believe or support what the author of that article is saying? Often times the answer is no,...
P2 WC
Path: Texas A&M >> ENGL >> 1301 Spring, 2008
Description: Smith 6 Work Cited Cheney, Dick. \"National Energy Policy: Reliable, Affordable, and Environmentally Sound Energy for America\'s Future.\" The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing. Eds. John D. Ramage, John C. Bean, and June Johnson. New York: Pearson Educati...
P3
Path: Texas A&M >> ENGL >> 1301 Spring, 2008
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Path: Texas A&M >> ENGL >> 1301 Spring, 2008
Description: Smith 6 Work Cited Lancaster, Tyler. Personal interview. 16 June. 2007. Scofield Study Bible, The. C.I. Scofield, editor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1945. Teague, Jonathan. Personal interview. 16 June. 2007. Tomlin, Chris. \"Not To Us.\" Not T...
_Apr2_ppt_
Path: Cornell >> PHYS >> 1112 Spring, 2007
Description: Monday Apr 2, 2007 Angular Momentum Read: (Today) 10.5 (Wednesday) 11.1-11.3 Homework 10: Due Monday April 9 Prelim 2: Thursday Chapters 6,7,8,9 Bring 1/2 page formula sheet Bring pencils, pens, ruler, protractor ...
_Apr4_ppt_
Path: Cornell >> PHYS >> 1112 Spring, 2007
Description: Wednesday Apr 4, 2007 Statics I Read: (Today) 11.1-11.3 (Friday) 11.3 Homework 10: Due Monday April 9 Prelim 2: Tomorrow Chapters 6,7,8,9 Bring 1/2 page formula sheet Bring pencils, pens, ruler, protractor ...
_Apr9B_ppt_
Path: Cornell >> PHYS >> 1112 Spring, 2007
Description: Monday Apr 9, 2007 Statics II Read: (Today) 11.3 (Wednesday) 10.4, 10.5 Homework 10: Due Today Homework 11: Due Friday Lab 7: This Week Recitation: Bring Tutorial Book ...
