Parties:
Political 9/26:
Political Parties Formal organizations, recognized in law, that seek legislative and/or executive power, and willing to abide by the constraints of election laws and parliamentary rules The Significance of parties Elections in the US are more candidate-centered Party identification in the US is historically weaker Members of Congress are more independent - ex. Voting within the legislature Parties are only strong around the Presidential election Comparatively: - Stronger parties (the US has weaker political parties because of this) The Role of Parties Recruit and socialize political elite Provide a link between citizens and rulers Aggregate interests Mostly Important: Parties structure the world of politics - Political competition revolves around parties - Government is government by party The (typical, basic) Structure of Parties:
Central Exec.
Parliamentary Party
District Executive Party Members
Party Organization 1: Membership Each political party maintains its own membership
You typically pay a membership You typically attend local branch meetings Some countries call these parties "clubs"
What members do: They socialize together! Have input into a party policy - e.g. attend annual convention Campaign Q: Do parties need members? - A: Candidate Selection A critical function of Political Parties in many countries Serve as ,,gatekeepers for high political office Candidate Selection by Party The United Kingdom: Conservative Party - List of centrally approved aspirant candidates (Screening process for new candidates/incumbents - Each constituency organizations then draws up a short list - Ordinary members in that constituency then makes the choice The Consequences of a Party-centered Candidate Selection Incumbent politicians must also respond to party elite - US: electorate (frequently) is also the selectorate (the person who selects who is running for a party) - Europe: May be very different - Different preferences over policy Selecting the Party Leader: A key task: Why? - because the leaders of a party with the majority of seats is the Prime Minister, in parliamentary governments (i.e. Europe) Q: Who selects the party leader? Possibilities include: - Executive committee - Members of the "parliamentary party" the members of parliament belonging to that party - Member-wide ballot Significant variation from party to party Looking at Parties and Party Systems: Key Question: What is the shape of the party system? The number of parties
- How many parties? - How many ,,significant parties (ENP)? The ideology of each party - Classical Left-Right ideological spectrum - Individual policy preferences
10/1: Electoral Systems: the mechanisms that turn the votes cast by citizens into a legislature Electoral system has profound effect on how votes are turned into seats Chosen consciously to have particular effects Main choice between proportional representation (PR) and non-PR systems Non-Proportional electoral system: Single Member Districts (The US example) Only one representative is elected from each district The percentage of the seat that you get is determined by the percentage of the vote that you get in a proportional system Simple plurality vote "first-past-the-post" - the candidate who receives the largest number of votes win - No majority required, no post! - E.g. legislative elections in the UK, USA (Test Q: Why is it incorrect to refer to as this as first past the post? A: there is NO post, no requirement in number of votes) Majority Vote - required a majority of the vote (50% plus 1) to win - May require repeated ballots to produce a winner! - E.g. legislative elections in France and Russia - If no candidate wins a majority on the first round, a second votes is taken (2 weeks later) with top two candidates. Proportional: Multi-Member Districts
1. Party List system/closed-list system
The voter choose among parties rather than the candidates Each party offers a list of N. candidates for the N seats elected in the district Districts typically range in size from 5-25 In Israel, Netherlands, and Slovakia the entire country is the district Seats are awarded, within each district, to parties in close proportion to the popular vote they receive. 2. Open-List System Ballots contains the name of all candidates in that district Voters express a preference for individual candidates Can be multiple candidates from the same political party, because there are more then 1 seat per district that they can take
Multiple seats per district How Seats are Allocated: Step 1: give seats to party in proportion to vote for party candidates Step 2: allocate specific seats to individual candidates from within each party
2. Mixed systems
Part elected in single-member districts using simple plurality rule. Happens when 2 diff electoral system are used to comprise the same body Part of parliament elected in multi-member districts using a list system Seats are awarded to parties in parliament according to the proportion of votes won. All candidates who won in districts are seated. Other candidates are chosen from the top of the party list Top-Up system: the aim is for the partys total number of representatives, including constituency representative, to be proportional to its percentage of the part vote. Used in Germany, Italy, Hungary, Russia, and New Zealand The Consequences of Electoral Systems The degree to which parties share of the vote corresponds to their share of seats in the legislature. Majoritarian = - Non-proportional outcome - Bonus for largest party 10/5: Effective party how many parties have a legitimate/genuine chance of becoming dominate Can have half-effective parties/third parties by forming coalitions, they may never become dominate but may become part of the executive/an effective coalition Duverger's Law the electoral system determines the party system PR system: yields multi party governments Plurality (non-PR) system: yields 2 party governments Interest aggregation: how voters interests are grouped together/heard Electoral Method: Interest Method: to gather interests under 1 candidate or one party; pulling your votes under one party or candidate that you know what it stands for (voting for your favorite party or candidate) Usually coalitions yield this result at the government level
Social/Political Cleavage (a division) issues that cause a division in society Consensus heals these issues Q: In PR there are subtypes, one is the list style. What is the list style PR? A mixed member form? Alternative vote system method a type of plurality/majority voting (not proportional) Gives the voters of the last place candidate to the voters second choice, when there is a tie If still no one has 50% of the votes, they continue with the candidate who was second to last, etc. Mixed Member system proportional representation system. Vote first for a candidate, then vote second for a party. They then assign the party seats in the proportion of the votes each party receives Lijphart thinks the Parliamentary system is best, instead of the Presidential system of government 10/8: Explaining who votes: Theories Political Sociology - People vote because of voting being the Norm or because of peer pressure Rational choice theory - Possible voter will do a cost-benefit analysis Voting: Compulsory Voting is compulsory in a few countries including: - Argentina - Australia - Belgium Result: Turnout 4-5 times higher Electoral System and turnout Average voting turnout in: PR systems (68 percent) - Preference is less likely to be wasted Semi-PR systems (59 percent) Plurality majority systems (59 percent) Who to vote for? Two leading models: 1. Party identification model - You vote because you are loyal to a party 2. Rational voter model
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You vote for the candidate that closest resembles your interests
Legislatures
There is no difference between a parliament and legislature What is the role of parliament, normatively and empirically? 1. Make laws 2. Oversee the executive and government agencies 3. In Parliamentary regimes to ,,make and ,,break the government Internal organization I: parties or committees? US Congress: Committees are generally considered the most significant form of internal legislative organization Most Parliament:: Political parties are considered more significant. Legislatures are formed around political parties. Strong Parties = unified parties: - Voting unity: The extent to which legislators from the same political party vote the same way - Cohesion: Where legislators from the same the same party share the same set of policy preferences on all policy issues. Cohesion is about ideology, policy preferences. - Discipline: The ability of the party leadership to enforce common voting within the party in the legislature, especially where it results in a member not voting in line with his/her own preferences. Internal organization II: Bicameralism One chamber or two? Why two chambers? - allow for representation of different interests or minorities within the country: Ex. UK - In the federal states to provide a forum for the individual states or provinces counterbalance to population-based representation in the main chamber. 10/10: Two realities in the law making process: 1. The legislative process is initiated within parliament and the advance of bills is a matter solely for the legislature 2. The government comes from the legislature and has effective control over the legislature - The executive has effective control over the legislature - The legislature "rubber stamps" - "executive dominance" The Oversight Function Assessed: How governments are held accountable: 1. General Debates 2. Questions to ministers
3. Committee Hearing Ultimately: A vote of no confidence is very costly. If the government loses a vote of confidence (aka receives a vote of no confidence): - The government is forced to resign And - New legislative elections are held 10/12: (Recitation) 1. A candidate with the most votes in a plurality system wins ("first pas the post"). Usually single member districts (only one seat available, no division). In a majority system the most votes, but also over 50% of the votes. 2. The majority candidates/parties are overrepresented in plurality voting. 3. District Magnitude the amount of seats available in a district per election. 4. Electoral Threshold the minimum percent of votes that you need to be qualified for a seat, more commonly found in PR systems because its about reaching a certain amount of votes, not about winning the election 5. STV = Single Transferable Vote 6. In an open list the seats go to each candidate and the district magnitude is 1 (when you see each candidate and vote on a candidate basis. The candidates are listed on the ballots, as well as their party affiliation), closed list seats go to each candidate and the district magnitude is 0 (when you vote for parties, you don't see the individual candidates. Just the parties are on the ballot). This is all about actual voting/the ballot box 7. The entire country is just one district.
Exam question??: Consensus systems strong committees in the legislature Opposition influence Easier to influence once you are on the committee (Committees are smaller groups in the legislature that talk about issues and may introduce legislation and policy on a specific topic. They also make sure previous legislation is being followed and check to see how a policy is holding up after implementation) Majoritarian Systems Weak committees in the legislature - Committees don't serve the critical functions that they do a in consensus system (committees look like smaller replications of the legislature in Majoritarian systems) Strong government party (aka executive dominance) ------------------ End possible exam question -------------
Why do legislatures become rubber-stamps? The same people control the cabinet that control the legislature Legislature seems to serve as a formal approval, there wasnt any doubt of the legislation not passing US has very strong committees and cant rubber-stamp Bicameralism: Strong bicameralism is when both houses have equal power, weak bicameralism (like the UK) one house has the majority of the power and the other house has fairly weak power
Symmetrical = strong bicameralism Asymmetrical = weak bicameralism Half of bicameralism is elected to represent the minorities Federalism more typically has a strong bicameralism 10/15: Power of the House of Commons is much more significant than the power of the House of Lourdes (UK has a very week second chamber) Typically the first chamber is much stronger (the lower chamber) than the second... however, in the US they are both equal
Interest Groups and Social Movements
Interest Group a group that attempts to impact public policy by means other than elected office Sometimes called "Pressure Groups" Social Movements Large informal groupings of individuals or groups focused on specific political or social issues, with the aim of carrying out, resisting or undoing a social change. Governments tend to not like social movements Two different models of interest group activity Pluralist Corporatist Features of Pluralism Large number of organized interests - multiple groups in competition with each other - Groups tend to be organized on a narrow or functional basis Relatively open pattern of access an open political marketplace - No single group monopolizes or dominates access to policy-makers - New groups can form with relative ease
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Union density the proportion of members in the workforce that are members of trade unions (relatively low in the US, but very high in some other countries)
Features of Corporatism Corporatism is a system of formal interest group participation in a states decision making process. Interest groups are formally part of the decision making process Regular Interaction between peak associations representing capital and labor - Trade Union Federations and Employers Association involved in both: o The formulation of government policy o The implementation of government policy Was originally associated with the fascism and authoritarianism but present in liberal democracies ,,Democratic Corporatism Social Partnership: typically a characteristic of - Smaller democracies - Countries with open economies (countries dependant of change Examples: - Ireland: Tripartite bargaining determine wage increases years in advance of it taken place 10/17: Disadvantages:
Corporatism: Groups may neglect or even sell out their members interests Undemocratic: - Elected officials can be excluded - Other interest groups are excluded Policy-making can be slow Pluralism: Not necessarily balanced: - Business groups often occupy a privileged position - More radical groups are excluded - Business groups are much wealthier than labor groups, therefore business groups can "open more doors"
UK: More pluralist Interest group contacts primarily with bureaucracy Trade Union access via the Labour Party (past) US: Pluralist Competition among multiple interest groups Privileged position of business
Germany Corporatist Special position for capital and labor Policy-communities linking federal & provisional governments France: Uneven Pluralism Close relationship between big business and the state
Interest groups and Majoritarian v consensus politics Pluralist = Majoritarian Corporatist = Consensus [** A note on Olsons Logic of Collective Action (The Collective Action Problem) ** Individuals have no incentive to join an interest group if the efforts of the group cannot be limited In the area of public policy, benefits are distributed equally to those who contributed to policy formation and those who did not Individuals therefore have incentives to free ride and let others invest time, energy, and money to getting the policy passed (indivisible goods) Is it a Problem (arguments presented)? Yes: groups are forced to provide selective material benefits to members No: Groups can rely on members interest in pursuing public policy goals]
10/19: (Recitation) Handout last week: Issues of Bicameralism (week 7) Bring a question next Friday!!! 1. [Symmetry the same amount of power on both dies Congruence both houses had the same lection methods, resulting in both houses having same composition or make-up] A. Symmetry Issue B. Would accept both answers, but its a symmetry issue according to Lijphart - Being elected in different ways would be a congruence issue C. Congruence issue 2. Federal Unitary issue 3. Unitary one national government Centralized the power is invested in a smaller group on a national level. This is a characteristic of a Unitary state Bicameral two powers/chambers in the legislature 4. Larger 5. Consensusism
6. **Exam Question: Voting Unity - The extent to which the legislatures form the same party and vote the same way (a behavior) Cohesion (do they think the same thing, or not? a characteristic) Discipline - the ability of party leaders to force voting unison (an ability) 7. Questions to ministers, Committee hearings, General debates, Lack of transparency Interest group pluralism characteristics: Interest groups do not have a direct seat in the government They try to influence/lobby members of government Tend to be a lot more interest groups in a pluralist economy because it is easier to start up a group in a pluralist governments Interest groups compete with one another (the definition of pluralism is competition) Tend to have a lot more money than corporatist interest groups Interest group pluralism is a Majoritarian characteristic Winner-take-all, want to win and want opponents to lose Interest group corporatism characteristics: Interest groups are incorporated into the decision making progress (have a built in seat) Not many interest groups, they are called peak associations Tri-Party Bargaining when two competing peak associations and the government get together to discuss things (this is a consensus characteristic in corporatist government, because it is a compromise between them all, not a winner-takes-all situation) 10/22: Constitution and Judicial Politics What is a Constitution? A code of rules which aspire to regulate the allocation of functions, powers, and duties among the various agencies and officers of government, and define the relationship between these and the public Usual components: 1. Provide basic rules of the political game with which politics operates 2. Sets out rights of the citizens 3. Specifies certain values central to the people Other feature: Usually written (codified) but not always, like Britain's Usually the supreme legal document Difficult to amend (such as in the US)
An unusual case: The British Constitution Its scattered (not written) , but scattered where? Statutes (regular laws made by the Parliament) Common Law (law based on judicial decision) Conventions (well established norms and rules) European Union Law (based on EU Treaties/EU legislation/Decision of European Court of Justice) Constitution: two issues 1. How difficult is it to amend? France: They keep making fundamental changes: Currently in the 5 th republic Germany: 2/3 of each chamber of the federal legislature Ireland: Referendum of the people 2. The presence or absence of judicial review Judicial review is the power of a court to review a law or an official act of a government for constitutionality (exists in the US) Some democracies do not have judicial review (Belgium, Finland, the Netherlands, and
Switzerland)
Some countries assign task to the high court Special countries have constitutional courts (i.e. France) Lijphart on Constituintional Rigidity: Two institutional variables: - How difficult it is to amend the constitution - Easy = simple majority = Majoritarian - The Presence of absence of judicial review - No JR = strong legislature = Majoritarian 10/24: **NO POLITICAL CULTURE ON THIS TEST** Unitary Systems most legal power is located in the central government The central government may create or abolish regional or local governments as it sees fit The great majority of countries have a unitary system Confederacy the opposite of a unitary system Regional governments are powerful and the central government is weak The regional jurisdiction establish a central government Power rests in regions Federal System falls somewhere between the unitary and confederate forms Has a minimum of two government levels Each of derives its powers directly from the people Each is supreme in the powers assigned to it Each is protected by a constitution from being destroyed by the other
In effect, people hold dual citizenship US is not a perfect case of a Federal System Federalism : the case of linguistically divided Belgium Perfect example of a federal system, b/c the central government has powers but so does it region There are divisions (cultural, religious, linguistic) The Advantages of Federalism: It helps manage social and political conflict - it disperses political power - People who share certain traits tend to cluster together spatially and regional government can represent such groups - Provides autonomy for minority groups Promotes administrative efficiency - The wide variety of services are delivered without a large central bureaucracy Encourages Innovation - New policies are constantly being tested by different "laboratories" The Disadvantages of Federalism May make conflict more dangerous Can also hinder progress - its difficult to coordinate - Can lead to duplication and confusion - Can make doing business across state lines difficult IRAQ: Unitary to Federal Deeply divided society Allow for greater ,,regional autonomy 10/25: 2. Federal System generally have a larger population. Diversity is better managed in federalism. Its not just one national government, theres almost always at least 2 layers of government (national government and regional governments) Both levels have to be constitutionally guaranteed that some actions are totally their responsibility and power; other governments cant interfere with it. 3. Centralized means the power is housed in a very central area, decentralized is diffused among different governments. Not only is power spread out and diffused, but is it permanent or temporary? 4. By the central governments tax share. What gov is receiving all the tax revenues? 7. A majority is 50% +1; a supermajority requires or 2/3 of the vote to win (when you require a threshold well beyond 50%)
Difference between non-associated and associated anomic groups (anomic group is a group that springs of nowhere) answer is on page 85, 86 in the blue book Majoritarian plurality system, leads to a two party system Consensus PR system, leads to a multi-party system Duvurgers law*** KNOW FOR TEST! Pop-up System: A compensatory system, they have two sets of elections and after the elections are cast for individuals they look at how many votes each party received. The parties with more votes earn more seats Difference between a social movement and an interest group: Social movement more spontaneous and democratic, rally around a cause and stop once they get what they want Interest group - more organized, champion causes that persist continuously