Language Second Teaching and Learning
Ling 316 Lecture 10: Second language learning in the classroom
Assignment 2
Please note: Assignment 2 involves reading the literature on your chosen topic: approximately 810 articles and chapters
on SECOND language learning, not first
language Assignment 3 is based on assignment 2. Assignment 2 focuses on theory, assignment 3 focuses on implications for the classroom
How does output affect language learning? Studies involving negotiation of meaning
Porter (1986) found that when learners talked with each other, they spoke more than they did when they interacted with native speakers Learners did not make more errors when interacting with other learners than they did when interacting with native speakers Implication: While learners may not provide each other with grammatically standard input, the opportunity for practice which includes the negotiation of meaning often outweighs this
How does output affect language learning? Studies involving negotiation of meaning
Yule and Macdonald (1990) studied role that different level learners play in 2way interaction tasks. They found that if the more advanced learner controls the information, there is little interaction. However, if the less advanced learner controls the information, there is much more interaction Conclusion: useful to place lessadvanced learners in dominant roles
How does output affect language learning? Studies involving negotiation of meaning
Mackey (1999) studied the effects of different types of interaction on language learning:
Result: learners engaged in interaction produced more advanced question forms
Group 1: Interaction between native speakers and learners: input modified as participants tried to clarify meaning Group 2: Observed group 1, but no interaction Group 3: Native speakers gave simplified input: no negotiation of meaning
How does input affect language learning?
Krashen(1985) stressed importance of input Canadian immersion studies found that focus on input (with little or no opportunity for output) resulted in learners acquiring high levels of comprehension but not of production
How does input affect language learning?
Input flood: Trahey and White (1993) presented learners with input with intensive input containing large numbers of a particular form (adverb placement) No teaching or error correction on adverb placement was given Results: Learners' adverb placement improved, but L1 transfer errors were not affected ie Input may tell learners what is possible, but not what is NOT possible
Studies involving order of acquisition
Studies suggest that order of acquisition is similar for naturalistic and instructed learners Premature instruction can have deleterious (negative) effects Teaching may speed up acquisition process Not all structures are involved in the acquisition hierarchy. These more amenable to teaching Order of acquisition affects production, not comprehension
Studies involving order of acquisition
Pienemann (1988) found that more advanced question forms could not be learned before less advanced forms had been acquired Doughty(1991) studies acquisition of relative clauses and found that these were acquired when learners were developmentally ready and instruction was given
Does everything have to be taught?
Many researchers believe: Formfocused (ie grammar) teaching is important BUT many language features are acquired naturally if learners have adequate exposure to language and motivation Learners need comprehensible input that is:
task based involves negotiation of meaning involves content AND involves explicit grammar teaching
Form and meaning: content-based teaching
Contentbased teaching involves second language learners receiving second language instruction via content study (eg: science) Doughty and Varela (1998) compared 2 groups of middle school students. One group received explicit and implicit feedback on use of past tense and conditional forms; the second did not Results: Group receiving feedback improved
Form and meaning: content-based teaching
Implications of contentbased teaching: focus on content ie focus on meaning importance of integrated language development: focus on form Harley (1993) suggests focus on features which: differ unexpectedly from L1 lack perceptual salience in L2 input are irregular in L2 do not carry a heavy communicative load
Language learning and classroom talk
Types of interaction in the classroom: Type 1 interaction: Teacher: Learner: Teacher: What is this called? Plastic You called it plastic. Good! It's plastic. But it's got another name too ... transparency
Language learning and classroom talk
Type 2 interaction
L1: Here I ... sometimes go to the beach (xxxx) L2: Pebble Beach? L1: Not Pebble Beach. My (xxxxx) L2: [They near ... Oh yeah L1: [Uhuh L2: Wow. It is good? L!: Yeah, I think so, L2: But I think here the beach not beautiful L1: Oh, really? L2: Yes. It's not white. The sand is not white. L1: [Uhuh L2: And the water ... you cannot swim. L1: I see because yeah! We can swim but= L2: [This water is L1: [=the water is cold.
Initiation-response-feedback exchange
Type 1 exchange is example of IRF (Initiation; Response; Feedback) or IRE (Initiation; Evaluation) Response;
Teacher as expert and gatekeeper; control interaction Students have limited opportunities to interact, test hypotheses, etc L1: investigated by Cazden (1988) and others L2: investigated by Lin (1999; 2000) pushes students away from possibility of developing interest in English as Language and culture for use to fulfill own communicative purposes (2000:75)
IRF and depth of processing
Wells (1993) found that depth of processing demanded by IRF is determined by what happens in Move 3: feedback
If Move 3 is evaluation, student participation is limited If Move 3 is Expansion (eg justify or clarify opinions, make connection to own experiences) learning enhanced
IRF and depth of processing
Teacher: What's the difference between `water is heating' and `water is heated'? Learner: Water is heating, it ... it's the one who's heating F1 Good ... Say the whole sentence. Water is Recitation heating the radiators F2 Display Good. What do we call that construction?
F3 And can you think of some things that might be Cognition heating? F4 Aha, can you explain in a little more detail? Precision
IRF and depth of processing
Recitation Display Cognition Precision
Depth of processing +
IRF and language learning
IRF is teachercentred: difficult for ss to
question, selfcorrect, disagree Student utterances often reduced; no opportunity for turn taking, topic development etc However, if Move 3 allows for student participation, IRF can facilitate learning
(Nassaji & Wells, 2000; Nystrand, 1997)
Studies of classroom interaction
Interaction involves:
Issues of control and power (who controls the
interaction) Issues of negotiation and joint construction: interactional symmetry In developing classroom interaction, issues of symmetry must be addressed
Encouraging symmetrical interactions
Contingency:
Signals relation between current utterance
and previous utterances
Raises expectations of future discourse so
directly through shared knowledge of environment
that utterances can be fitted in to it ie contingency is about links, overt and covert
Learner Learner interaction 1
S1: From my room I can see the ocean view S2: Wow S1: And ... S2: [And how many rooms do you have? S1: Two bedroom two full bathroom S2: What what what S1: Two bedroom= S2: [Two bedroom S1:=and two full bathroom
Learner Learner interaction 2
S1: I never asked you, what did you do in Japan before you came here? S2: Um after finish high school S1: Uhuh S2: I work ... for ..............three years S1: Hmm S2: And .... S1: [Where did you work? S2: It this is very ..... difficult for explain S!: Try S2: I use ... the computer S1 Uhuh
Developing interactional symmetry
Successful interaction involves developing:
Proactive (planning and predictive) resources opening sequences (Do you know what?) cataphora (Now, listen to this) grounders and preparers (OK, three points ... ) strategic moves (Let me give you an example)
Developing interactional symmetry
Concurrent (signalling during own or other's turn)
Reactive
Back channels (hm, Uhuh) Gaze (eye contact, looking away) Turnover signals...