5 Chapter Management Functions
Definitions
Measuring: determining through formal and informal reports the degree to which progress toward objectives is being made. Evaluating: determining cause of and possible ways to act on significant deviations from planned performance. Correcting: taking control action to correct an unfavorable trend or to take advantage of an unusually favorable trend.
Directing
Staffing: seeing that a qualified person is selected for each position. Training: teaching individuals and groups how to fulfill their duties and responsibilities. Supervising: giving others day-to-day instruction, guidance, and discipline as required so that they can fulfill their duties and responsibilities.
Directing (Continued)
Delegating: assigning work, responsibility, and authority so others can make maximum utilization of their abilities. Motivating: encouraging others to perform by fulfilling or appealing to their needs.
Directing (Continued)
Counseling: holding private discussion with another about how he might do better work, solve a personal problem, or realize his ambitions. Coordinating: seeing that activities are carried out in relation to their importance and with a minimum of conflict.
Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs
SELF-ACTUALIZATION SELF-ESTEEM SOCIAL / BELONGING SAFETY PHYSIOLOGICAL
Motivating
A feeling of pride or satisfaction for one's ego Security of opportunity Security of approval Security of advancement, if possible Security of promotion, if possible Security of recognition A means for doing a better job, not a means to keep a job
Professional Needs
Interesting and challenging work Professionally stimulating work environment Professional growth Overall leadership (ability to lead) Tangible rewards Technical expertise (within the team) Management assistance in problemsolving Clearly defined objectives
Professional Needs (continued)
Proper management control Job security Senior management support Good interpersonal relations Proper planning Clear role definition Open communications A minimum of changes
Providing Security
Letting people know why they are where they are Making individuals feel that they belong where they are Placing individuals in positions for which they are properly trained Letting employees know how their efforts fit into the big picture
Motivation
Adopt a positive attitude Do not criticize management Do not make promises that cannot be kept Circulate customer reports Give each person the attention he requires
Motivation
Giving assignments that provide challenges Clearly defining performance expectations Giving proper criticism as well as credit Giving honest appraisals Providing a good working atmosphere Developing a team attitude Providing a proper direction (even if Theory Y)
Working With The Technical Prima Donna
Nonfinancial Awards/Recognition
With non-financial awards, employees may receive cash-equivalent items, but not cash-in-hand.
Types Of Project Authority
DE JURE OR LEGAL AUTHORITY DE FACTO OR IMPLIED AUTHORITY
PROJECT CHARTER AUTHORITY
Power/Authority Problems
Poorly documented or no formal authority Power and authority perceived incorrectly Dual accountability of personnel Two bosses (who often disagree) The project organization encouraging individualism
Power/Authority Problems
(Continued)
Subordinate relationships stronger than peer or superior relationships Shifting of personnel loyalties from vertical to horizontal lines Group decision making based the strongest group Ability to influence or administer rewards and punishment Sharing resources among several projects
Negotiations
Negotiations should take place at the lowest level of interaction. Definition of the problem must be the first priority:
The issue The impact The alternative The recommendations
Higher-level authority should be used if, and only if, agreement cannot be reached.
Responsibility Matrix
General management responsibility Operations management responsibility Specialized responsibility Who must be consulted Who may be consulted Who must be notified Who must approve
Responsibility Assignment Matrix
(An Example)
c oje Pr r so on Sp t ct en oje r tm r Pr pa ge De na Ma ber m Me am e Te f ic Of ct oje er Pr ag an tM
Raw Material Procurement Prepare bill of materials Contact vendors Visit vendors Prepare purchase orders Authorize expenditures Place purchase orders Inspect raw materials Quality control testing Update inventory file Prepare inventory report Withdraw Materials
LEGEND
General Management responsibility Specialized Responsibility Must be consulted May be consulted Must be notified Must approve
Responsibility Matrix (RASIC)
RASIC charts are a method of defining,
communicating and tracking changes to programs and activity responsibility during a product development process. They can be used at the program scope definition stage, as a tool for clear contract negotiation with vendors, or to assist with defining responsibility for specific activities on a project or program.
Responsibility Matrix (RASIC)
R Responsible for ultimate delivery and execution. A Approves the course of action being chosen (Authority). S Supports the task with resource(s), time or other material benefit(s). I Input to the task, but does not have a critical contribution. C Consults on an ad hoc `as required' basis.
Responsibility Matrix (RASIC)
The key to the RASIC charts function is that it ensures an activity has a defined owner and therefore gets done, as well as avoiding duplicate ownership. In addition, it recognizes that there is a sliding scale of involvement that minimizes abdication of partial responsibility for tasks that are not central to an individuals daily activity.
Purchasing Engineer
Contract (Process)
Platform Engineer (Product)
System Engineer (Competancy)
Co-op (Process)
T&O Engineer
Manager
Platform
Responsible (R) Approval (A) Support (S) Inform (I) Consult (C)
Supplier Resident Engineer
Staff Engineer/Architect
This example shows one embodiment of RASIC charts. This example is picked from a high-level definition of key program activities for a new vehicle project, where the responsibility split between U-Lift Forklift Company and a technology partner is being defined.
Design
CAD Part number Release Authorization Notice ECN FMEA System Validation Plan (SVP) Vehicle Validation Plan (VVP) CPPDM - Vehicle project champion CPPDM - Powertrim proj. champion Design Control Hold Design Reviews
A A A A
A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S R A/S
S S S S S S S S S R S
R R R R R R S S R S R
S S S S S R R S S S
A
Development TIR Responsibility
Manufacturing Process/Training Development/Production Drawings Functional Testing Systems Performance Integration
R A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S
S S S S R S S S S S S S
S R R R S R R S R S S R
S S S S S S S S S R R R R R
Validate
Functional Testing SVP VVP CPPDM PPAP IPPAP CPPDM
Deliver
Project Management Project Leadership
Material Budget Tooling Budget Capitol Budget Develop Resource Requirements Prototype Procurement
A A A A
A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S
S S S S
S S S S S R S R
S S R S
R R R R R
S
Requirements ReqSpec Vehicle
ReqSpec Chassis
R S
Supplier Interaction
Request Quotations through Purchasing Supplier Liaison
A/S A/S
S S
R S
S S
S R
MFG
Purchasing Engineer
Contract (Process)
Platform Engineer (Product)
System Engineer (Competancy)
Co-op (Process)
T&O Engineer
Manager
Platform
Responsible (R) Approval (A) Support (S) Inform (I) Consult (C)
Supplier Resident Engineer
Staff Engineer/Architect
The line items in the RASIC chart can be altered to suit any level of program task detail. The columns can also be extended to include several key partners such as different functions (manufacturing, service, etc.), or stakeholders (supplier `A', individual `B', consultant `C', etc.).
Design
CAD Part number Release Authorization Notice ECN FMEA System Validation Plan (SVP) Vehicle Validation Plan (VVP) CPPDM - Vehicle project champion CPPDM - Powertrim proj. champion Design Control Hold Design Reviews
A A A A
A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S R A/S
S S S S S S S S S R S
R R R R R R S S R S R
S S S S S R R S S S
A
Development TIR Responsibility
Manufacturing Process/Training Development/Production Drawings Functional Testing Systems Performance Integration
R A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S
S S S S R S S S S S S S
S R R R S R R S R S S R
S S S S S S S S S R R R R R
Validate
Functional Testing SVP VVP CPPDM PPAP IPPAP CPPDM
Deliver
Project Management Project Leadership
Material Budget Tooling Budget Capitol Budget Develop Resource Requirements Prototype Procurement
A A A A
A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S
S S S S
S S S S S R S R
S S R S
R R R R R
S
Requirements ReqSpec Vehicle
ReqSpec Chassis
R S
Supplier Interaction
Request Quotations through Purchasing Supplier Liaison
A/S A/S
S S
R S
S S
S R
MFG
Some columns have multiple levels of involvement. This holds true for all levels, except "RResponsibility". For this category, there can only be one defined owner for each task.
Staff Engineer/Architect
Purchasing Engineer
Contract (Process)
Platform Engineer (Product)
System Engineer (Competancy)
Co-op (Process)
T&O Engineer
Responsible (R) Approval (A) Support (S) Inform (I) Consult (C)
Manager
Supplier Resident Engineer
Platform
Design
CAD Part number Release Authorization Notice ECN FMEA System Validation Plan (SVP) Vehicle Validation Plan (VVP) CPPDM - Vehicle project champion CPPDM - Powertrim proj. champion Design Control Hold Design Reviews
A A A A
A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S A/S R A/S
S S S S S S S S S R S
R R R R R R S S R S R
S S S S S R R S S S
A
MFG
Responsibility Matrix (RASIC)
RASIC charts can be used at any level, where clarity of responsibility is required. The value of RASIC charts is that they can be custom tailored and constructed to fit the needs of individual programs and activities.
Responsibility Matrix (RASIC)
Ideally, the line items on the RASIC chart would correspond to a line item on a Gantt chart, that also defines the time bound requirements of delivery for that activity. This can then be related to a named individual.
Definitions
Authority is the right of an individual to make the necessary decisions required to achieve his objectives or responsibilities. Responsibility is the assignment for completion of a specific event or activity. Accountability is the acceptance of success or failure.
Delegation Factors
The maturity of the project management function The size, nature, and business base of the company The size and nature of the project The life cycle of project the The capabilities of management at all levels
Types of Authority
The focal position for information Conflict between the project manager and functional managers Influence to cut across functional and organizational lines Participation in major management and technical decisions Collaboration in staffing the project Control over allocation and expenditure of funds
Types of Authority (Continued)
Selection of subcontractors Rights in resolving conflicts Voice in maintaining integrity of the project team Establishment of project plans Providing a cost-effective information system for control Providing leadership in preparing operational requirements
Types of Authority (Continued)
Maintaining prime customer liaison and contact Promoting technological and managerial improvements Establishment of a project organization for the duration of the project Cutting red tape
Types of Power
Legal authority: The ability to gain support because project personnel perceive the project manager as being officially empowered to issue orders. Reward power: The ability to gain support because project personnel perceive the project manager as capable of directly or indirectly dispensing valued organizational rewards (i.e., salary, promotion, bonus, future work assignments).
Types of Power (Continued)
Penalty power: The ability to gain support because the project personnel perceive the project manager as capable of directly or indirectly dispensing penalties that they wish to avoid. Penalty power usually derives from the same source as reward power, with one being a necessary condition for the other.
Types of Power (Continued)
Expert power: The ability to gain support because personnel perceive the project manager as possessing special knowledge or expertise (that functional personnel consider as important). Referent power: The ability to gain support because project personnel feel personally attracted to the project manager or his project.
Leadership Factors
The person leading The people being led The situation (for example, the project environment or problem.)
Employee Problems
The pyramidal structure Superior-subordinate relationships Departmentalization Scalar chain of command Power and authority Planning goals and objectives Decision making Reward and punishment Span of control
Management Pitfalls
Lack of self-control (knowing oneself) Activity traps Managing versus doing People versus task skills Ineffective communications Time management Management bottlenecks
Communications Defined
Effective project management is needed to ensure that we get the right information, to the right person, at the right time, using the right media and the right format, and in a cost-effective manner.
Communications Responsibility
The project manager must know:
What kind of message to send To whom to send the message How to translate the message into a language that all can understand
Communications
An exchange of information An act or instance of transmitting information A verbal or written message A technique for expressing ideas effectively A process by which meanings are exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols
Types of Communication
Written formal Written informal Oral formal Oral informal (preferred by project managers)
Communication Channels
UPWARD COMMUNICATION TO MANAGEMENT
LATERAL COMMUNICATION TO PEERS, FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND CUSTOMERS
PROJECT MANAGER
LATERAL COMMUNICATION TO FRIENDS, SOCIAL GROUP AND BOTH FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
LATERAL COMMUNICATION TO ASSOCIATES AND THE PROJECT OFFICE
CustomerContractor Communication
Customer Sponsor Informal Contractor Sponsor
Project Manager
Formal
Project Manager
Employees
Informal
Employees
REGION OF EXPERIENCE FOR SOURCE
Total Communication Process
REGION OF EXPERIENCE FOR RECEIVER
SOURCE
ENCODER
MESSAGE
DECODER
RECEIVER
PERSONALITY SCREEN
PERCEPTION SCREEN
FEEDBACK
PERCEPTION SCREEN PERSONALITY SCREEN
Encoding Barriers
Communication goals Communication skills Frame of reference Sender credibility Needs Personality and interests Interpersonal sensitivity
Encoding Barriers (Continued)
Attitude, emotion, and self-interest Position and status Assumptions (about receivers) Existing relationships with receivers
Decoding Barriers
Evaluative tendency Preconceived ideas Communication skills Frame of reference Needs Personality and interest
Decoding Barriers (Continued)
Attitudes, emotion, and self-interest Position and status Assumptions about sender Existing relationship with sender Lack of responsive feedback Selective listening
Understanding Barriers
Listening skills Culture Intelligence Knowledge base Semantics Situational consideration Emotional status Authority or position Common sense
The Six Senses
Hearing activity Reading skills Visual activity Tactile sensitivity Olfactory sensitivity Extrasensory perception
External Factors
The business environment The political environment The economic climate Regulatory agencies The technical state-of-the-art
Environmental Factors
Logistics/geographic separation Personal contact requirements Group meetings Telephone Correspondence (frequency and quantity) Electronic mail
Ambiguity
Ambiguity causes us to hear what we want to hear. Ambiguity causes us to hear what the group wants. Ambiguity causes us to relate to past experiences without being discriminatory.
Functional Applications
Providing project direction
Decision making Authorizing work Directing activities Negotiation Reporting (including briefings)
Attending meetings Overall project management Marketing and selling
Functional Applications (Continued)
Public relations Records management
Minutes Memos / letters / newsletters Reports Specifications Contract documents
Perhaps as much as 90 percent or more of the time the project manager spends in providing project direction involves some form of communications.
Meetings
Meetings can be classified according to their frequency of occurrence:
The daily meeting where people work together on the same project with a common objective and reach decisions informally by general agreement. The weekly or monthly project meeting where members work on different but parallel projects and where there is a certain competitive element and greater likelihood that the chairmen will make the final decision by himself/herself.
Meetings (Continued)
The irregular, occasional, or "...