2 Exam Review Guide Chapter 5: Types of groups
SOC
-Primary groups consist of intimate, face-to-face interaction and relatively longlasting relationships. Ex: family, friends, gang -Secondary groups are larger in membership, less intimate and less long lasting Ex: people in your neighborhood -Reference groups are those to which you may or may not belong but use as a standard for evaluating your values, attitudes, and behavior
EX: kid wants to be in the NBA that's a reference group
-In-groups and out-groups -the sense of "us" and "them" -attribution theory: people make inferences about the personalities of others based on whether they are in the in-group or the out-group -a social network is a set of links between individuals or between other social units (organization, nations) Social networks play an important role in providing opportunities Ex: people get jobs via personal networks more often that through formal job listing, want ads, or placement agencies Small world research project -300 "senders" were tasked with getting a document to a complete stranger -1/3 of the documents arrived, with an average of 6.2 contacts Social influence Social influences -The group in which we participate exert tremendous influence on us -even "nonconformists" conform to their in-group (hippies, rockers) Arch conformity experiment -1/3 of the subjects went along with the group at least time; 40% at least some of the time -only of subjects consistently resisted pressure to conform Milgram obedience studies -65% of subjects administered what they thought was lethal voltage on a shock machine Ex: person continued to shock, but never got up to check on the subject
-Milgrim described the dilemma as a conflict between conscience and authority Group think: 4 aspects -illusion of invulnerability -falsely negative impression of those who are antagonists to the group's plans -discouragement of dissenting opinion -illusion of unanimity Ex: everyone agrees with the subject. Those who disagree do not speak up Risky shift -Groups weigh risk differently than individuals -ex: people in group will take greater risk than if it was individually Most group discussions leads to greater risk-taking as groups get larger; deindividualization is more likely to occur Ex: people are more likely to streak in a group than by themselves Types of organizations Types of organizations -Normative- pursue goals that members consider worthwhile Ex: religious/charitable -Coercive-membership is largely involuntary Ex: prison, mental institutions Utilitarian-members join for specific purposes Ex: Microsoft, organizations purpose of making money Formal organization -a large secondary group, highly organized to accomplish tasks, goals efficiently -develop own culture and routine practice Ex: business dress having casual Fridays Bureaucracies Weber: characteristics of bureaucracy -division of labor and specialization Ex: bank tellers, loan officers, two different tasks/ DOL (division of labor) -hierarchy of authority Ex: your boss has a boss -impersonal relationship Ex: work in bureaucracies and not have a personal relationship not a personal relationship -rules and regulation
Ex: within it are specific guidelines you have to follow to get the task done -career ladders Ex: possibility of advancement -efficiency Ex: government, calling sears and getting transferred because they are not trained to do those certain tasks, U of A run around Bureaucracy's others face Informal structures ignore, change, or bypass formal structure and rules Ex: secretaries and administration know all the actual procedure but will bend the rules Subcultures develop in the workplace Ex: have at least one person you talk to at work The informal culture can become exclusionary Ex: cliques, sex, race Problems of bureaucracies -risky shift Ex: larger the group the less risk you take Group think Ex: everyone agrees with the subject. Those who disagree do not speak up -alienation Ex: less human being and more like a machine McDonaldization -Efficiency- things move from start to finish in a streamline motion Ex: making cheeseburger fashion assembly line Calculability-emphasis on quantitative aspects product sold Ex: exact amounts of product, how much money is being spent, McDonald measures ketchup use -Predictability-products are the same no matter when or where are purchased Ex: buy McDonald in Tucson and buy McDonald in New York get same burger -Control-behavior is reduced to a series of machinelike actions Ex: going through drive threw you know the role you play as a customer Diversity in organizations -Organizations perpetuate inequality EX: minorities are less likely to get promoted and more likely to get fired -The "glass ceiling" effect- minorities may only be promoted up to a certain point
Ex: promote you but won't let you go all the way up to the top, but its like you can see the top through a glass ceiling because you are so close Chapter 6: Sociological perspective on deviance Defining Deviance -deviance is behavior that violates expected rules and norms -ex: crime, substance abuse, cross dressing -Aspects of sociological definitions: -Stresses social context, not individual -Ex: Public display of affection heterosexual is cute homosexual is a deviant action -Recognizes that not all behaviors are judged similarity by all groups -Recognizes that rules and norms are socially created -Ex: Some drugs are ok like drinking, smoking NOT crack Types of deviance -Formal deviance- is behavior that breaks law or official rules -Ex: Crime, rules within church -Informal deviance- is behavior that violates customary norms -Ex: Not illegal to cross dress but it is not socially acceptable Studying Deviance -Why are people deviant? -How does society react? Sociological theories of deviance and crime -Theories of deviance: functionalism -Merton: structural strain theory -deviance results from imbalance between cultural goals and the means to achieve them -Theories of deviance: Functionalism -Hirschi: social control theory -people internalize social norms because of their attachments to others -deviance occurs when one's attachment to social, bonds is weakened -Theories of deviance: conflict theory -dominant classes control the definition and sanctions attached to deviance -Ex: doc tells who is ill and lawyer tells who is guilty ho is not -deviance results from social inequality -Ex: In group out group, in group normal out group deviance -Theories of Deviance: Symbolic interactions -Differential association theory -Deviance is learned through interaction with others -Ex: Friends ditch class smoke, you will start to smoke
-deviant expectations are passed on through social groups, networks -Ex: grew up in FAM of con artist most likely to be one
Theories of deviance: Symbolic Interaction -Labeling theory: -a label is the assignment of a deviant identity to a person by others -Ex: labeling someone bad kids or criminals -someone might be labeled "deviant" even if they have not engaged in deviant behavior -Ex: hang out with deviant crowd but you are not deviant but Adult in neighborhood label you as deviant -a deviant label is difficult to shed -Ex: you start to accept that label and become that label Forms of deviance Forms of deviance Mental illness -defined, identified, and treated in a social context -Ex: homeless women on street acting crazy you think their crazy and rich person act crazy you think they are excentric not crazy -those with the fewest resources are most likely to be labeled mentally ill -Ex: women, colored people Social stigmas -a stigma is am attribute that is socially devalued and discredited. -Ex: Had STD -people with stigma are defined in terms of their presumed deviance. Substance abuse -which substances are defined as deviant often depends on who they are used by, and in what context -Ex: drinking and being an alcoholic -Crack- inner city -Cocaine-Rich people -also varies over time Measuring crime book -Crime is deviant behavior that violates criminal law -Criminology Types of crime Corporate Person hat crime Property crime Race, class, gender and crime/the criminal justice system -Race, class, gender, and crime
-Arrest data show pattern of differential arrests along lines of race gender and class -Question: does this reflect actual differences in the extend....... -Answer is both -crime is distinctively linked to patterns of inequality in society -Ex: Correlate crime and poverty -also, prosecution is significantly related to patterns of race, gender, and class inequality. -Ex: Sentencing, imprisonment, patterns Race and Crime -African Americans and Latinos are more than twice more likely to be arrested for a crime than whites -Ex: Police choose when to enforce the law -disparities in juvenile justice system: of those arrested 25% of white youths are sent to prison compared to nearly 60% of black youths Women and Crime -the # of women arrested for crimes has increased slightly in recent years -Ex: More women in jobs more ability to commit crime imbesilment -still, the # are small relative to men The policing of minorities -minority communities are policed more heavily than white neighborhoods -policing in minority communities has different effect than in white, middle class communities -Ex: Racial profiling, abuse from police Racial Profiling -is the use of race alone as the criterion for deciding whether to stop and detain someone -race is not a justified basis for suspicion, as the vast majority of people of any race do not commit any crime Race and Sentencing -extensive research finds that once on trial, minority defendants are found guilty more often than white defendants -at sentencing, African Americans and Latinos are likely to get linger sentences than whites for the same crime Race and the Death Penalty -of the over 3500 prisoner's currently on death row, 44% are black -an African American who kills a white person is 3x more likely to get death penalty than someone who kills an African American Prisons -more than half of the federal and state male prisoners in the U.S are racial minorities -THE U.S and Russia have the highest rate of incarceration in the world *U.S is still the highest
-the rate of prison growth in the US has lead to an increase of prisons run by private companies Ex: it has become a business to have a prison -One major reason is the increased enforcement of drug offenses: -nearly of state prisoners 60% of federal prisoners Women in Prison -#of the women in prison has been increasing, but still only 8% of all state and federal prisoners. -prison system helps to reinforce gender inequality: -male prisoners often receive training for such jobs as auto mechanics -women are more likely to be trained as beauticians or launders Prisons and deterrence -prisons rarely seem to deter or rehabilitate offenders. -only 20% who are imprisoned for drug offenses ever received drug treatment -the prison experience is poorly suited to training prisoners in marketable skills or allowing them to repay their debt to society Chapter 7: Social differentiation and social stratification Social differentiation -Is the process by which different statuses develop in any groups, organizations, or society -Ex: Sports organizations, fan, manager, players, and cheerleaders Social stratification A hierarchical arrangement in society by which group have differential access to resources, power, and perceived social worth -Ex: sports organizations, player make money but managers are above them sponsors provide resources to team fans provided revenue but don't have a lot of power Types of stratification systems Estate-elite own property and control resources -Ex: noble own land peasants work Caste-rigid hierarchy of classes Ex: Status is ascribed born into it, today very rare Class- status is partially achieved; some potential for movement between classes -Ex: Not participant name that will dictate what classes you are in Defining class -Social class is the social structure position groups hold relative to the economic, social political and cultural resources of society. -access to these resources, and to life chances or opportunities, are highly influenced by class
-Ex: Rich more likely to go to private school college and a higher paying job, from poor more likely to go to public school, hard to afford college, and hard for a good job -class is not just an attritubute of individuals; it is a feature of society
Inequality in the U.S. -Nearly 1 in 6 children in the U.S. live in poverty -Among women heading their own household, 31% live below poverty line -1% of U.S. population controls 33% of total wealth in the nation. bottom -The 20% owes more than they own. -CEOs of major companies earn an average of $13.1 million per year -minimum wage 40 hrs/wk equals 10,742 Theoretical perspectives on inequality (Marx, Weber, Functionalism, Conflict) Marx: class and capitalism Defined classes in terms of their relationship to the means of production -capitalist class owns the means of production -working class sells their labor for wages -Workers contribute value to the system; capitalists extract value, exploiting labor -wealth becomes concentrated in the hands of a few, while the majority work only to make ends meet Weber: 3 dimensions to stratification Class-economic dimension -Ex: Income property Status-(or prestige) - social dimension -Ex: teacher don't get paid a lot but have prestige Party-(or power) - political dimension -Ex: Mother Teresa high on power low on money Functionalist view of stratification -Inequality motivates people to fill positions that are needed for the survival of the whole -Those who work hardest succeed, have better life chances. Conflict view of stratification -Inequality results when those with the most resources exploit others -The most vital jobs in society are usually the least rewarded Ex: the trash collector, the teacher
Class structure of the U.S. Social class in the U.S. Socioeconomic status (SES) can be measured by: -income -occupation prestige -education Social class as a ladder system: -upper class -Upper-middle, middle, & lower middle class -working class, lower class, underclass Results from high reliance on debt to maintain standard of living, as well as unexpected financial set-backs Income and wealth Social Class in the U.S -Income is the amount of money a person receives in a given period -Wealth is the total value of what one owns, minus debt -Can be inherited, accumulates over generations -Classes in the U.S are becoming increasingly polarized -Recent changes in tax policy have favored the wealthy, while reductions in federal support programs have hurt the lower class. Social class in the U.S: the fragile middle class -Bankruptcy rates have increased dramatically in recent decades -Largely a middle-class phenomenon -Results from high reliance on debt to maintain standard of living, as well as unexpected financial set-backs Sources of stratification Diverse sources of stratification -Race, class, and gender are overlapping systems of stratification -Ex: Experience all three ate the same time -Class position is manifested differently depending on race and gender -Ex: Black man gets pulled over maybe there race has the biggest one of these sources -Race influences wealth distribution: Ex: For every $1 of wealth held by white Americans black Americans have 26 cents -Discriminatory housing practices, lending policies, tax codes, etc. have prevented black Americans from accumulating wealth. -In the past, the class position of women was derived from their husbands or fathers -Measured by their own income and occupation, most women would be considered working class Social mobility -Social mobility is a person's movement over time from one class to another -Can be up or down
-Can be intergenerational or intergenerational -Upward social mobility in the U.S is much more limited than people commonly believe -Most remain in same class as parents; many drop to a lower class -Generally influenced by societal factors: 1. Changes in occupational system 2. Economic cycles 3. Demographic factors -Ex: what age group are in the time, r people going to be retiring, and the more people-the more it's harder to get a college degree. -Class consciousness: -The perception that a class structure exists, along with feeling of shared identification with others in one's class -False consciousness (Marx): -Describes class consciousness of subordinate classes who have internalized the view of the dominant class Poverty -The poverty line is the amount of money needed to support the basic needs of a household, as determined by government -Those who fall below the line are officially considered poor -Poverty: who are the poor? -37 million people in the U.S fall (12.6%) under the poverty line the majority of poor are white people of color are over-represented among poor -the feminization of poverty refers to increasing proportion of the poor who are women and children -this has occurred despite women's increased participation in the labor force Chapter 8: Global stratification The world system the level of economic development is explained by understanding each country's place and role in the world economic systems not all countries are equal partners in the global markets EX: tennis shoe by Nike THE INTERNATIONAL division of labor, and the demand for cheap labor in some industrial and developing countries, has lead to the growth of international migration ex: sears moving to the Philippians Theories of global stratification Theories of global stratification
1) modernization theory economic development stems from technologies change a change becomes more "modernized" through increased technologies development traditional customs and culture inhibits modernization the modernized countries are the more richer countries 2) Criticisms of modernization theory DOESNT look at economic and political context of national development implies that economically developed nations have superior values does not account for interplay between nation, connections in global systems Dependency theory many of the poorest nations are former colonies of European powers poverty of low-income countries is a direct result of political and economic dependence on wealthy countries the poverty of many countries is a result of exploitation by powerful countries colonialism and neocolonialism create and maintain global inequality EX colonialism: India would extract the product sell to Europe, Europe make cloth and then sell it back to India Consequences of global stratification High-income countries have lower childhood death rates, higher life expectancies, and fewer children born underweight Most people in high-income countries have access to clean water and adequate sanitation Ex:countries with low death rates have high life expectancy, not bringing in a lot of population, fertility rate low In the poorest countries, childhood death rates are higher, life expectancy is lower limited access to clean water means to dehydration Environment: - Overdevelopment leads to deforestation burning fossil fuels leads to "greenhouse gas" Education: in high-income nations the vast majority of people have formal education ex: high school in poorer countries, education is passed on more informally through family and religious congregation Gender inequality: WOMEN are generally better off in wealthier countries, but gender inequality exists globally many countries have made gains toward gender equality in recent years World poverty
poverty: who are the poor? factors contributing to feminization of poverty: growth of female-headed households wage inequality between men and women occupation sex segregation welfare reform; decreasing social support for the poor Poverty: welfare -welfare reform has largely focused on moving people from welfare to work the personal responsibility and work opportunity reconciliation Act (PRWORA) replaced AFDC with TANF TANF requires welfare recipients to find work within two years, and stipulates a lifetime of five years by virtue of its design, welfare reform has reduced the # of people recieving aid however,there has been an increase in the # of people in poverty low wage woek does not lift familes out of poverty access to affortable childcare is limited leaving welfare for work often means giving up healthcare benefits PRWORFA focused on marriage as a solution to welfare dependency this solution ignores occupational sex segregation and income inequality it also suggests that women should remain dependent on men marriage does not always lead to an improved economic situation relative poverty: definitions of poverty vary from one country to another ex: lookin gg at in its context absolute poverty: the situation in which people live on less than a $ 1 per day extreme poverty: the situation in which people live on less than 4275 A YEAR 600 MILLION PEOPLE live at or below extreme poverty the human poverty index: measures degree of deprivation of $ basic dimension: a long and healthy life knowledge economic well-being social inclusion Who are the worlds's poor? 28% of the world's populations live at or below absolute poverty Sub-Saharan Africa has highest incidence of poverty, with 42% of the population living in poverty Women in poverty THE UN commission on the status of women estimates those women: Perform 2/3 of all work hours Receive 1/10 of the world's income Own less than 1% of the world's wealth
Children in Poverty The UN estimates that there are 211 million children ages 5-14 in the paid labor force throughout the world Chapter 9: Race and ethnicity Ethnicity Broad defined, an ethnic group is a social category of people who: -share a common culture -have a consciousness of their common cultural bond Ethnic groups develop because of their unique historical and social experiences Ethnic categories are socially constructed Ex: being labeled by others, Italians were not an ethnic group until they called them Italian americans RACE -A racial group is a social category of people who are treated as distinct in society based on certain characteristics that have been assigned social importance -These categories may be biological, such as skin color -it is not biological characteristics as such that define racial group, but how groups have been treated historically and socially based on those characteristics How racial groups are defined is a social process In other words, race is socially constructed The concept of "race" varies overtime, and from one place to another. Ex: defining black and white in the U.S. versus Brazil U.S. census categories, you can mark more than one race Racialization is a process whereby some social category, such as a social class or nationality, takes on what are perceived in the society to be racial characteristics. Ex: Jews being ethnic group, Hitler defined them as a race, this is how they became a racial group in that context. RACE and ETHNICITY Ethnicity is generally based on perceived cultural characteristics, while race is often based on perceived biological differences Racial formation is the process by which a group comes to be defined as a race -social institutions play a role in producing and maintaining the meaning of race -racial formation is connected to the exploitation of racial groups Racial stereotypes STEREOTYPES
-A stereotype is an oversimplified set of beliefs about members of a social group or social stratum Ex: can be negative or positive -We categorize people bade on salient characteristics which becomes the biases of stereotypes Reinforcing prejudices and causes them to persist in society Ex: racial gender stereotypes in media Justify the oppression of groups based on race, ethnicity and gender Prejudice, discrimination, racism PREJUDUCE Evaluation of a social group based on conceptions about that group, despite facts that disprove them. Ex: thinking ill of people only because they are members of an X group is prejudice Negative evaluation solely based on membership in group X Prejudice and stereotypes are learned through socialization: Family, peers, teachers, media Theories of prejudice and racism Diverse groups and histories Patterns of racial and ethnic relations Attaining racial and ethnic equality **The exam will also cover the D2L readings that you have been assigned since exam 1: Zimbardo, Rosenhan, Reiman, Zuckerman, Bales, the 3 readings from the Udall Center, and McIntosh. Bales Quiz 1.) The bales article primarily focuses on the consequence of economic transformation in? -A: Thailand 2.) The Bales article provided an example of the consequences of global stratification primarily as it relates to -A: gender and equality 3.) One major industry that has connected this country like Japan, Switzerland, and U.S. In the global economy has been -A: sex trafficking 4.) Social stratification within this country leads to some families there _______ in order to maintain a certain standard of living -A: daughters 5.) _______ poverty is the situation in which people live on $275 per year or 75 cents a day -A: extreme poverty 6.) It is estimated that there is enough food grown in the world to feed world's population, but it is not distributed to the whole population
-A: true Peggy machintosh All reading will have at least one question 30-40 questions