FOR GUIDELINES WRITTEN SUBMISSIONS
1. INFORMATION AND GUIDELINES ON WRITING TECHNICAL REPORTS 1.1. Introduction Writing a technical report should be approached just like any engineering problem: outline what you need to do (e.g., what is the question), determine appropriate steps to take to get to the solution, and document how the results were accomplished. The following is a presentation of some information and guidelines concerning the submission of technical reports. Although this is not a guide to writing papers and reports for engineering and other courses, it is a useful listing of items and points to consider when writing such reports. Usually the author of a paper or a report has the objective of identifying an idea and/or presenting and discussing the results of some analysis. Whatever the topic, it should be thoroughly and logically developed, clearly presented, and all conclusions clearly stated and discussed. In general, if the objectives of the assignment are met and the above guidelines are followed, the concept of length is irrelevant. It is important to understand that each report must "stand alone". That is, a reader not knowing what was the assignment should be able to understand what is the scope of the project, why and how the project was completed, what were the results of this effort, and what are the recommendations or conclusions based on this work. 1.2. Writing Engineering Reports Before starting to write, one should identify what the goals are for the document to be created. Typically, technical writing is used to present information, convince an audience of certain ideas or combine both. Thus, the basic question asked is What is the focus of the report? Possible answers are to provide information, request permission or funding, instruct an audience on procedures or directions, propose a plan of action, suggest an action, convince others about an issue or document a research effort. The next focal point is the target audience and the question asked here is For whom is the report written? Typically, engineers write without spending much time to consider to whom the document is addressed and thus, documents are very confusing to others outside the immediate targeted group. The intended audience, such as engineers, managers, technicians, non-experts or general public, usually indicates the amount of detail one should include in the document. Next, the general guidelines and specifications that may exist for the specific document should be considered. Some such specifications may be the length and format of the document (single space, page limit or word limit), the components of the report (cover page, cover letter, summary page or table of contents), and style of headings (arabic or roman numbering, bold or regular typeface). The material should be presented in a logical order. For example, if the goal is to describe the steps completed to reach a certain point or decision, then a chronological order is more appropriate; if the goal is to present several solutions to a problem, these should be given with some order (increasing cost, decreasing effectiveness or vice versa); if the goal is to present the improvements of an arterial based on modifying a few intersections, these should be presented moving from the general (overall arterial) to the specific (effect of each intersection). 1.3. Expressing Ideas Engineering is a concise discipline and thus, writing should be done in the same way. However, it is often reasonable to have more than one way to express the same idea and this may create problems. It should always be kept in mind that a reader should spend time grasping the ideas and not deciphering the intended meaning of the document. Ambiguous sentence structures, vague statements,
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and poor transition between ideas and sentences should be avoided: directness is preferred. The following examples demonstrate these points. Redundant words producing the same meaning should be avoided. For example, alternative choices - alternatives, exactly identical - identical, and connected together - connected.
Italicized text shows the preferred structure The use of the first alternative produced better results but there are more costs associated with it. The first alternative produced 30 percent fewer delays than the other alternatives but it also costs 10 percent more than the other alternatives. We had a few bugs, nothing major, but we had to make a couple of adjustments before we began optimizing the data set. The data set was run for a simulation after we made these adjustments. After determining that our data reflected accurately the existing conditions, we began the simulation runs. By improving the timing and phasing on this section of the highway we expect to improve several things. The items we hope to reduce are delays and travel times while simultaneously increasing the system speed. By doing these things, traffic will flow smoothly. Delays and travel times are expected to be reduced while system speeds are increased by modifying the timing and phasing along this section of the highway. Changes in these travel attributes are expected to improve flow along this arterial.
A brainstorming session of techniques turned up a variety of various possible solutions for optimization. After considering several alternatives, a variety of optimization solutions were identified.
1.4. Communicating Ideas A properly presented report impresses the audience. There are several tools that could be used to enhance ideas presented and increase efficiency of communication. Such tools are tables, graphs, and charts and examples of these are shown in the following.
Under the existing conditions, there is a 75 sec/veh delay of the east-bound left-turns and a 35 sec/veh delay for the through and rightturn lanes. The use of alternative A reduced these delays to 50 and 20 secs/veh respectively, while alternative B increased the leftturn delays to 100 sec/veh and reduced the through and right-turns to 15 sec/veh. Based on these figures... The comparison between the two alternatives and the existing conditions is shown in Table 1. Based on these figures... Table 1. Delays for existing conditions vs. alternatives A and B Condition Delays (sec/veh) Existing 75 35 Alternative A 50 20 Alternative B 100 15
Movement Left Through and right
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The existing average delays are 80 sec/veh at intersection 1, 70 sec/veh at intersection 2, 100 sec/veh at intersection 3, and 90 sec/veh at intersection 4. For alternative A the delays at intersection 1 were 40 sec/veh, intersection 2 50 sec/veh, intersection 3 110 sec/veh and intersection 4 60 sec/veh. On the other hand, for alternative B intersection 1 has a 70 sec/veh delay, intersection 2 a 60 sec/veh delay , intersection 3 a 90 sec/evh delay, and intersection 4 a 75 sec/veh delay. Based on these estimates alternative... The percent differences in delays between each alternative--A and B--and the existing conditions are shown in Figure 1. Based on these differences alternative...
Figure 1. Percent reduction in delays--existing vs alternative
Graphs should be inserted as close to the their first reference as possible; if not on the same page, at the top of the next. By simply inserting graphs without discussing or explaining their key points is not a good practice. Figure titles should also be included and should briefly describe the main point of the graph. Full page graphs should be placed on the next page after their first mention; half page graphs should be part of the text without any text wrapped around them while smaller graphs can have text flow around them. Figures are referenced in the text in various ways. For example, as can be seen in Figure 3, the delays (Figure 3) indicate or Figure 3 shows that the delays. 1.5. Types of Reports Even though reports have different names, such as progress, lab, inspection, final, and so forth, all share some basic points. First of all, the name of the report is not standard among all professionals; thus, there are no strict rules regarding any of these types. Each report should be written with the audience in mind, which in turn will indicate the extent of the technical information to be included. The introduction is probably the strongest point of the report and the place where the interest of the audience will be captured. Keeping these basic principles in mind, the specifics of progress reports and engineering reports are discussed in the following sections. 1.5.1. Progress Reports Progress reports are usually required to present the status of work to the client and identify potential future problems arising from the work completed. These reports allow the clients to monitor the progress and quality of the project and the consultants to maintain a professional image and protect themselves from unreasonable expectations by the client.
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A progress report consist of the following components: C Introduction: indicates purpose and topic of report and provides a brief overview of the contents. C Project description: a brief description of project should be included, in case the report goes to readers unfamiliar with the project, indicating objectives and completion dates. This part could be omitted depending on the requirements of the client. C Progress summary: presents the work completed, the work in progress, and the remaining work to complete the project. The work could be summarized by periods (past-present-future periods), by tasks (completed-in progress-future activities) or combining both approaches. C Problems encountered: discusses the future problems that may arise from the project. C Overall assessment of the work: indicates how the project is going in general and if it is expected to be completed in time. An example of a progress report is shown in Figure 1.1. A cover letter, which summarizes the status of the project, usually accompanies progress reports. Figure 1.1. Example of progress report
PROGRESS REPORT DONALDSON Rd. PROJECT Reporting Period: May-June 1996 The following is a report on the progress that Kentucky Traffic Institute (KTI) has made during the second quarter of the project period to determine and evaluate potential alternatives for the redesign of the Donaldson Rd. Interchange along I-75. Project Review KTI contracted with ACE, Inc. in March 1996 to perform an analysis of the existing conditions of Donaldson Rd. and the I-75 interchange in Northern Kentucky, identify potential problems, evaluate possible alternatives for ramp closures and traffic rerouting, develop solutions to potential problems, and justify and propose the most efficient solution to the anticipated problems. This project, scheduled for completion by the end of August 1997, will provide ACE, Inc. with an optimum interchange design and timing plans and phasing for the signalized intersections of Donaldson Rd. A detailed report presenting these findings will also be developed and delivered to the KyTC. Project Status During the past two months the data collected were used to develop a simulation model to reproduce the existing conditions and form the basis for all solutions to be tested. This model was calibrated to the local conditions and its results were compared and validated with field studies completed within this period. Attached are also the diagrams for the preliminary ramp designs and turning pocket lengths, as requested by the KyTC liaison. At the same time, timing and phasing plans were developed for each alternative, since different traffic volumes and conditions will be expected for each alternative design. First, phasing plans were developed using the PASSER II-90 software and then entered in TRANSYT-7F to develop the timing splits and offsets for each intersection. The next step is the implementation of these timing plans into the simulation model and development of models that will allow for the evaluation and comparison of the different alternatives as determined by KyTC. These alternatives include elimination of the south-east quadrant ramp, the elimination of the north-east quadrant ramp, the elimination of the east ramps, and the redesign as a diamond interchange. The concerns regrading the pedestrian requirements will be addressed only after the best alternative is chosen to limit the possible models, since pedestrian volumes are low and are expected to significantly affect the final choice. However, if this poses a problem, KTI is willing to test all alternatives with and without the pedestrian timings. Overall, the project is on time and it is anticipated that it will be completed as scheduled by the end of August 1997.
1.5.2. Engineering Reports Each report typically consists of the following sections:
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C Transmittal letter: It is typically a cover letter where the purpose of the report is described and what is covered in the report. It usually ends by indicating that the client can contact the consultant for additional information. C Covers: Long reports, over 10 pages, need to be bound and have covers. Never use the plastic slip cases where pages are inserted in the case because pages become loose. Three hole punch covers are better than the plastic slip, but are still not a very good choice because they do not lie flat and page holes tend to tear. The best choice is spiral binding because reports can lay flat and combine simplicity and functionality. A label with the title of the report, consultant names, and date is usually shown on the front cover. C Title page: This page has the name of the report, the name of the client, the name of the consulting firm, and the date. Typically all text is centered both horizontally and vertically and the name is capitalized. An example of a title page is shown on the cover of this document. C Abstract: This is a brief summary of the report and there are two types of abstracts--descriptive and executive. The descriptive abstract summarizes the report and presents the scope and findings of the project. The executive abstract presents the key elements of the report and describes the findings and conclusions of the work. It is usually longer than the descriptive abstract and approximately one to two pages long. C Table of contents: This is a list of the sections and headings of the report and shows the reader the page number where they start. Headings and subheadings should appear as in the text and page numbers should be aligned along the right margin. Second and third level headings should be indented and use the same capitalization as in the text. An example of a table of contents is shown in this document. C Introduction: This part is probably the most important section, since it prepares the reader for the remainder of the report. It should provide the purpose of the report, the scope of the project, the contents of the report, and the steps taken to complete the project. This section should be brief and introduce the reader to the report. It should not be used to describe the approach taken and present background information; use another section for this if it is deemed necessary. C Main Body: This is where the main text of the report is presented. Various formats exist for how items should be presented. Typically background information is the first section, followed by the methodology used, the research analysis, and the recommendations of the report. Headings should be used to separate each section with or without a numbering scheme and tables and figures should be numbered sequentially. Use short sentences, avoid passive voice, do not use redundant words, use paragraphs, and use transition sentences between paragraphs. Use any manual for punctuation and grammar structure (see Section 1.1.7). Number all pages of the report sequentially except the abstract and the table of contents. C Conclusions: This section presents a summary of the project and work completed, draws conclusions and provides recommendations on follow up work, and generalizes future potential applications. This could be considered the punch line of the report, since it summarizes the findings and presents the proposals of the consultants. C Appendix: This is a section where anything that does not fit in the main part of the report is included. Large tables, software data sets, foldout maps, and large illustrations are usually found in an appendix.
1.6. Editing Reports After completing the first draft, the report should be edited for content and structure. There are several points that should be considered while editing including punctuation, structure, grammar,
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1.6.1. Punctuation Punctuation marks dictate the flow of the document and could be considered as the traffic signals and signs of the document. Several guides are available describing their use (see Section 7) and only some basic punctuation concepts are presented here. C Commas: Used to separate explanatory statements and a list of similar items within a sentence. An easy way to decide whether a comma is needed, try to say the sentence aloud and where a pause is needed a comma could be placed.
Italicized text is the preferred structure In all the outputs were acceptable considering the existing conditions. In all, the outputs were acceptable considering the existing conditions. As you can see the efficiency peaks at intersection 1. As you can see, the efficiency peaks at intersection 1.
C Parentheses: Used to set off facts or references in writing. If the text within the parentheses is a complete sentence, put a period inside the mark; otherwise, put the punctuation outside of the parenthesis. However, it is best not to use parentheses too often, since they can distract the reader.
The delays were higher at this intersection (Table 1) than at the others. This book (John and Mary, 1993) contains all the required information. The use of arterial progression increased the speeds along the main movements (for intersection 1 by 30 percent and intersection 2 by 20 percent). On the other hand, fuel emissions were increased (NOx for intersection 1 is 100 gr/mi and for intersection 2 80 gr/mi.)
C Hyphens: Used to divide a word or join words acting as a single descriptor. It is difficult to decide when to use hyphens but, at the same time, they could be very useful in reducing confusion. Prefixes like pre-, re-, semi-, sub- do not require a hyphen unless there is possible confusion. Use of a technical dictionary or any dictionary may reduce confusion on the use of hyphens.
Italicized text is the preferred structure A three step approach was used. A three-step approach was used. Research showed that the computer aided optimization is much easier then the manual approach. Research showed that the computer-aided optimization is much easier then the manual approach. The re-design of the road was considered essential to improve the preexisting conditions. The redesign of the road was considered essential to improve the pre-existing conditions.
C Semicolon: Used to combine sentences that stress a point and separate short statements. It is not used very frequently in technical writing but it can help to make a point stronger and relate two sentences.
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The use of arterial progression increased the speeds along the main movements; however, fuel emissions were increased. The development of this progression can reduce delays and fuel emissions; help can improve travel times; and can assist in lowering the system-wide number of stops.
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1.6.2. Structure The reader should be guided through the document in a logical order. Using topic sentences, transitions between paragraphs, and signal phrases are tools that can enhance the structure of a report. Topic sentences are used to introduce the main point of a paragraph, transitions ease movement between paragraphs and increase readers expectations, and signal phrases act as guideposts within the paragraph. Some examples of each are shown here.
Topic Sentence Fuel emissions for this alternative were reduced significantly. For the existing conditions these levels were above 100 gr/mi, while alternative A reduced them by 35 percent. Moreover,... Alternative A has significantly improved the levels of fuel emissions. While existing levels were above 100 gr/mi, alternative B reduced them by 35 percent. Moreover,... Transition Possession of driver's license may be considered a factor that greatly affects and changes the activities of an individual. Securing a driver's license at a relatively young age is considered an indicator of independence and a "passport" to adult life-styles. But, maintaining the driver's license as one ages is also an indicator of independence and mobility status. Research has shown that maintaining a license as one achieves elderly status is as important as earning a license while a teenager. The importance of this phenomenon was also prominent among the participants in this study. Among the 155 participants that completed the interview and the questionnaire, 107 (69 percent) currently had a valid driver's license... Signal Phrases All alternatives tested were compared to determine the best alternative to be recommended. However, one should keep in mind that the results shown here are simply for comparative purposes among alternatives. In no case should they be considered as real-life outcomes, since no calibration was performed. First, the delays were compared, followed by the average speeds, the travel time through the main streets, and finally the number of stops at each intersection. Based on these measures, the simulation output showed that Alternative A had better results than any other alternative tested. Moreover, (or In addition, Furthermore, Also) this alternative is the one with the lowest cost among the other alternatives. Therefore, (or Thus, Hence,) this alternative is recommended.
To make the report easy to read, keep the structure as simple as possible. Wordiness complicates the message and distracts the reader from comprehending the ideas. Grammatical structure is very important--agreement of subject and verb and proper use of articles and prepositions. Incomplete sentences, missing verbs, subjects or nouns, are usually found in engineering reports. Use of passive voice should be avoided as much as possible; instead use active voice. 1.6.3. Editing To improve the quality of a report, the author should allow time for editing and rereading the report prior to submitting it. Even though word processors can help with spelling and grammar, do not just rely only on their instructions or recommendations. The final decision lies with the author.
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To improve editing a technical report, three steps are usually taken. First, the document is checked for overall format and consistency. Are headings and subheadings uniform and used properly? Is there enough white space--margins, spacing, font size? Are specifications followed? Then the document is edited for structure. Transition between paragraphs, topic sentences, wordiness, and signal phrases are considered in this step. Finally, the punctuation and grammar are checked as the third step to enhance the overall quality of the report. The following cardinal rule should be kept in mind: The author should read the document at least once, preferably twice, after it is written. 1.7. Writing Tools In addition to word processors, there are other tools that one needs to consult when creating a document. A short list of such references is shown here. However, one should always keep in mind the specific requirements of the report by the client or agency. For example, if the report is to be submitted to the Federal Highway Administration, certain requirements apply to conform with governmental publications. C Dictionary: There are many dictionaries available ranging from the pocket variety to multi-volume sets. Dictionaries are typically purchased as a high-school graduation present and never opened again. The latter is the mistake--open it, read it, and use it. C Style manual: There are also lots of style manuals around and there are several good ones. A style manual will provide a source for everything regarding the construction of a report (from how to lay out the table of contents to how to do referencing.) Two of the best are: < Editorial Staff of the University of Chicago Press 1982. The Chicago Manual of Style. 13th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. < Turabian, Kate L. 1973. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. C Thesaurus: Usually engineers find themselves repeating a word over and over again--this is a hint that a synonym is needed--look in the thesaurus, "... a dictionary of synonyms ...," for a suitable alternative and/or to generally introduce variety into your writing. Some other reference materials include: American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 1974. Guidelines for Format and Production of Scientific and Technical Reports, Z39.18-1974. New York: ANSI. Department of Defense/Engineers Joint Council 1967. Thesaurus of Engineering and Scientific Terms. New York: Engineers Joint Council. USDOT 1975. Standards for the Preparation and Publication of DOT Scientific and Technical Reports. Report No. DOT-TST-75-97. Washington: USDOT. 1.8. Some Hints on Writing Style and Other "Stuff" C Humor is a wonderful thing. However, reports and submissions for classes are to be taken seriously and written that way. C Write in the third person. In general, you should not use statements such as: "We determined that the capacity of the intersection...", it is more preferable to state "It was determined that the capacity of the intersection is..." C Check your spelling. Usually automatic spelling programs miss the jargon of the discipline. If your spelling and/or grammar is (are) bad enough to detract from the message that you are trying to convey, your submissions will be downgraded. C Never divide figures and tables over a page-break. Each should always be in "one piece." If a figure or table takes up more than about 1/2 of a page, put it on a separate page. If the figure or table is on
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a separate page, it should follow on the page immediately after the first reference to it in the narrative. All figures and tables should be numbered consecutively and a descriptive title should be included. C The first use of an abbreviation or an acronym should be preceded by a fully-spelled-out statement. For example, "The Transportation Research Board (TRB) has initiated several programs in research and education. Members of TRB have identified the following research areas:..." (Note also the examples used throughout this text.) C The use of headings and subheadings is a good way to separate different parts of your presentation. The use of such techniques helps to keep you on track and lets the reader know when you are changing from one part of your paper to another. The headings must be consistent. Usually, major section headings are noted with upper-case, centered titles (note that these can be enhanced in various ways through the wonders of modern word-processing systems) and a new major section heading is always at the top of a new page (like the chapters in a book); major subheadings are upper-case, flush-left, emphasized; further subheadings are upper-case, flush-left, emphasized, and underlined; and sub-divisions are first letter upper-case and then the rest lower-case, flush-left, underlined. Note that this is only an example of presenting them. There is numbering system that can be followed starting with 1 for the first chapter and adding decimals for further sub-divisions. For example, a numbering sequence may look like 1.1.3.4 identifying chapter 1, section 1, sub-section 3, and sub-sub-section 4. 1.9. References and Citations 1.9.1. Citations While you are preparing your submissions, you may find a need for either a direct quotation of an author or some reference to his/her ideas or concepts. Some examples on how to cite their work follow. Only few examples are shown and for a complete overview consult one of the style manuals listed later. As one of the transportation engineers noted, "Downtown development followed familiar North American lines. There was a steady exodus of business firms and shopping areas from the center of the city to the suburbs" (Carr 1976, 55). Usually, the citation immediately follows the quotation, is placed in parentheses, and as information includes the author's name, the date of the publication, and the page number of the quotation. The references are listed in alphabetical order by first author. The use of the date will also serve to differentiate between works by the same author. If there are two or more references to the same author(s) in the same year, differentiate by lower case letters--e.g., (Carr 1976a, 55). If the work cited is by more than three authors use (Carr et al. 1976a, 55). Whichever style you choose, be consistent throughout your paper. Another method is to refer to references with a number, e.g., (17), where the references are numbered at the end of the paper. Note that if you were preparing your paper for submission to a journal, adherence to a certain style may be mandated. TRB uses to "numbering" system while the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) uses the "author" system. If the quotation is "lengthy" (say 8-10 typed lines), the quotation is indented, single-spaced with no quotation marks.
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Knight (1986) determines that high occupancy vehicles will aid the reduction of the noise and pollution in Central Business Districts (CBD). On the other hand, the issues of noise and pollution have been ignored by all local and state authorities (Paul and Art 1987; Smith 1987).
The first example notes the idea of Knight without using a direct quote. Since the author has been identified in the narrative, the citation contains only the year of the publication. In the second example, citations are made of the works of three other authors. Note that no specific pages are identified, indicating that their work presented this idea. Note the use of the semi-colon to separate the two citations within the parentheses. 1.9.2. References This is an example from a reference list that appeared in the TRB publication Information for Authors and Speakers. Journal Publications V. Zahavi and J.M. Ryan. Stability of Travel Over Time. In Transportation Research Record 750, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1980, pp. 70-75 J. K. Jolliffe, T.P. Hutchinson, and D.K. Brown. A Behavioral Explanation of Car Following Theory. Transportation Science, Vol. 9, No. 3, May 1975, pp. 50-56 Books D. Shinar. Psychology on the Road: The Human Factor in Traffic Safety. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, 1978 M. D. Meyer and E.J. Miller. Urban Transportation Planning: A Decision-Oriented Approach. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1984. Reports J. D. ...