Not The So Short A Introduction to L TEX 2
A Or LTEX 2 in 141 minutes
by Tobias Oetiker Hubert Partl, Irene Hyna and Elisabeth Schlegl Version 4.26, September 25, 2008
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Copyright 1995-2005 Tobias Oetiker and Contributers. All rights reserved. This document is free; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This document is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this document; if not, write to the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
Thank you!
Much of the material used in this introduction comes from an Austrian A introduction to L TEX 2.09 written in German by: Hubert Partl Irene Hyna <[e-mail]> <[e-mail]> <noemail>
Zentraler Informatikdienst der Universitt fr Bodenkultur Wien Bundesministerium fr Wissenschaft und Forschung Wien
Elisabeth Schlegl
in Graz
If you are interested in the German document, you can nd a version A updated for L TEX 2 by Jrg Knappen at CTAN://info/lshort/german
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Thank you! The following individuals helped with corrections, suggestions and material to improve this paper. They put in a big eort to help me get this document into its present shape. I would like to sincerely thank all of them. Naturally, all the mistakes youll nd in this book are mine. If you ever nd a word that is spelled correctly, it must have been one of the people below dropping me a line.
Rosemary Bailey, Marc Bevand, Friedemann Brauer, Barbara Beeton, Jan Busa, Markus Brhwiler, Pietro Braione, David Carlisle, Jos Carlos Santos, Neil Carter, Mike Chapman, Pierre Chardaire, Christopher Chin, Carl Cerecke, Chris McCormack, Wim van Dam, Jan Dittberner, Michael John Downes, Matthias Dreier, David Dureisseix, Elliot, Hans Ehrbar, Daniel Flipo, David Frey, Hans Fugal, Robin Fairbairns, Jrg Fischer, Erik Frisk, Mic Milic Frederickx, Frank, Kasper B. Graversen, Arlo Griths, Alexandre Guimond, Andy Goth, Cyril Goutte, Greg Gamble, Frank Fischli, Morten Hgholm, Neil Hammond, Rasmus Borup Hansen, Joseph Hilferty, Bjrn Hvittfeldt, Martien Hulsen, Werner Icking, Jakob, Eric Jacoboni, Alan Jerey, Byron Jones, David Jones, Johannes-Maria Kaltenbach, Michael Koundouros, Andrzej Kawalec, Sander de Kievit, Alain Kessi, Christian Kern, Tobias Klauser, Jrg Knappen, Kjetil Kjernsmo, Maik Lehradt, Rmi Letot, Flori Lambrechts, Axel Liljencrantz, Johan Lundberg, Alexander Mai, Hendrik Maryns, Martin Maechler, Aleksandar S Milosevic, Henrik Mitsch, Claus Malten, Kevin Van Maren, Richard Nagy, Philipp Nagele, Lenimar Nunes de Andrade, Manuel Oetiker, Urs Oswald, Lan Thuy Pham, Martin Pster, Demerson Andre Polli, Nikos Pothitos, Maksym Polyakov Hubert Partl, John Reing, Mike Ressler, Brian Ripley, Young U. Ryu, Bernd Rosenlecher, Kurt Rosenfeld, Chris Rowley, Risto Saarelma, Hanspeter Schmid, Craig Schlenter, Gilles Schintgen, Baron Schwartz, Christopher Sawtell, Miles Spielberg, Matthieu Stigler, Georey Swindale, Laszlo Szathmary, Boris Tobotras, Josef Tkadlec, Scott Veirs, Didier Verna, Fabian Wernli, Carl-Gustav Werner, David Woodhouse, Chris York, Fritz Zaucker, Rick Zaccone, and Mikhail Zotov.
Preface
A L TEX [1] is a typesetting system that is very suitable for producing scientic and mathematical documents of high typographical quality. It is also suitable for producing all sorts of other documents, from simple letters to A complete books. L TEX uses TEX [2] as its formatting engine. A This short introduction describes L TEX 2 and should be sucient for A most applications of L TEX. Refer to [1, 3] for a complete description of the A X system. L TE
This introduction is split into 6 chapters:
A Chapter 1 tells you about the basic structure of L TEX 2 documents. You A will also learn a bit about the history of L TEX. After reading this A chapter, you should have a rough understanding how L TEX works.
Chapter 2 goes into the details of typesetting your documents. It explains A most of the essential L TEX commands and environments. After reading this chapter, you will be able to write your rst documents.
A Chapter 3 explains how to typeset formulae with L TEX. Many examples A Xs main strengths. At the end demonstrate how to use one of L TE of the chapter are tables listing all mathematical symbols available in A L TEX.
Chapter 4 explains indexes, bibliography generation and inclusion of EPS A graphics. It introduces creation of PDF documents with pdfL TEX and presents some handy extension packages.
A Chapter 5 shows how to use L TEX for creating graphics. Instead of drawing a picture with some graphics program, saving it to a le and then A A including it into L TEX you describe the picture and have L TEX draw it for you.
Chapter 6 contains some potentially dangerous information about how to A alter the standard document layout produced by L TEX. It will tell you A how to change things such that the beautiful output of L TEX turns ugly or stunning, depending on your abilities.
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Preface It is important to read the chapters in orderthe book is not that big, after all. Be sure to carefully read the examples, because a lot of the information is in the examples placed throughout the book.
A L TEX is available for most computers, from the PC and Mac to large UNIX and VMS systems. On many university computer clusters you will nd that A a L TEX installation is available, ready to use. Information on how to access A the local L TEX installation should be provided in the Local Guide [5]. If you have problems getting started, ask the person who gave you this booklet. The scope of this document is not to tell you how to install and set up a A L TEX system, but to teach you how to write your documents so that they A can be processed by L TEX. A If you need to get hold of any L TEX related material, have a look at one of the Comprehensive TEX Archive Network (CTAN) sites. The homepage is at http://www.ctan.org. All packages can also be retrieved from the ftp archive ftp://www.ctan.org and its mirror sites all over the world. You will nd other references to CTAN throughout the book, especially pointers to software and documents you might want to download. Instead of writing down complete urls, I just wrote CTAN: followed by whatever location within the CTAN tree you should go to. A If you want to run L TEX on your own computer, take a look at what is available from CTAN://systems.
If you have ideas for something to be added, removed or altered in this document, please let me know. I am especially interested in feedback from A L TEX novices about which bits of this intro are easy to understand and which could be explained better. Tobias Oetiker <[e-mail]>
OETIKER+PARTNER AG Aarweg 15 4600 Olten Switzerland
The current version of this document is available on CTAN://info/lshort
Contents
Thank you! Preface 1 Things You Need to Know 1.1 The Name of the Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 1.1.2 L TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Author, Book Designer, and Typesetter 1.2.2 Layout Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . A 1.3 L TEX Input Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . A 1.3.3 L TEX Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Input File Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 A Typical Command Line Session . . . . . . . 1.6 The Layout of the Document . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.1 Document Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.2 Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.3 Page Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Files You Might Encounter . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 Big Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Typesetting Text 2.1 The Structure of Text and Language 2.2 Line Breaking and Page Breaking . . 2.2.1 Justied Paragraphs . . . . . 2.2.2 Hyphenation . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Ready-Made Strings . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Special Characters and Symbols . . . iii v 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 7 9 9 10 13 13 14 17 17 19 19 20 21 21
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viii 2.4.1 Quotation Marks . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Dashes and Hyphens . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Tilde () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.4 Degree Symbol () . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.5 The Euro Currency Symbol (e) . . . 2.4.6 Ellipsis (. . . ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.7 Ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.8 Accents and Special Characters . . . International Language Support . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Support for Portuguese . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Support for French . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Support for German . . . . . . . . . 2.5.4 Support for Korean . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.5 Writing in Greek . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.6 Support for Cyrillic . . . . . . . . . The Space Between Words . . . . . . . . . . Titles, Chapters, and Sections . . . . . . . . Cross References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emphasized Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11.1 Itemize, Enumerate, and Description 2.11.2 Flushleft, Flushright, and Center . . 2.11.3 Quote, Quotation, and Verse . . . . 2.11.4 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11.5 Printing Verbatim . . . . . . . . . . 2.11.6 Tabular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Floating Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protecting Fragile Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 27 28 29 29 32 33 33 35 37 37 38 38 39 39 40 40 41 41 44 47 49 49 49 51 52 57 57 57 58 59 60 60 61 63
2.5
2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11
2.12 2.13
3 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae A 3.1 The AMS-L TEX bundle . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Single Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Math Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Building Blocks of a Mathematical Formula 3.4 Vertically Aligned Material . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Multiple Equations . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Arrays and Matrices . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Spacing in Math Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Phantoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Fiddling with the Math Fonts . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Bold Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Theorems, Lemmas, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 List of Mathematical Symbols . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS 4 Specialities 4.1 Including Encapsulated PostScript 4.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Fancy Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 The Verbatim Package . . . . . . . . 4.6 Installing Extra Packages . . . . . . A 4.7 Working with pdfL TEX . . . . . . . 4.7.1 PDF Documents for the Web 4.7.2 The Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3 Using Graphics . . . . . . . . 4.7.4 Hypertext Links . . . . . . . 4.7.5 Problems with Links . . . . . 4.7.6 Problems with Bookmarks . . 4.8 Creating Presentations . . . . . . . . 71 71 73 75 76 78 78 79 80 81 83 83 86 86 88 91 91 92 92 94 95 96 97 97 98 99 100 101 102 102
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5 Producing Mathematical Graphics 5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 The picture Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Basic Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Line Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.5 Text and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6 \multiput and \linethickness . . . . . . 5.2.7 Ovals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.8 Multiple Use of Predened Picture Boxes . 5.2.9 Quadratic Bzier Curves . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.10 Catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.11 Rapidity in the Special Theory of Relativity 5.3 The TikZ & PGF Graphics Package . . . . . . . .
A 6 Customising L TEX 6.1 New Commands, Environments and Packages 6.1.1 New Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 New Environments . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Extra Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 6.1.4 Commandline L TEX . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.5 Your Own Package . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Fonts and Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Font Changing Commands . . . . . . 6.2.2 Danger, Will Robinson, Danger . . . . 6.2.3 Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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105 . 105 . 106 . 107 . 107 . 108 . 109 . 109 . 109 . 112 . 112 . 113
x 6.3.1 Line Spacing . . . . . 6.3.2 Paragraph Formatting 6.3.3 Horizontal Space . . . 6.3.4 Vertical Space . . . . Page Layout . . . . . . . . . . More Fun With Lengths . . . Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 113 114 115 116 118 119 121 123 123 124 124 124 124 124 124 125 125 125 127 129
6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7
A A Installing L TEX A.1 What to Install . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 TEX on Mac OS X . . . . . . . . . A.2.1 Picking an Editor . . . . . . A.2.2 Get a TEX Distribution . . A.2.3 Treat yourself to PDFView A.3 TEX on Windows . . . . . . . . . . A.3.1 Getting TEX . . . . . . . . A A.3.2 A L TEX editor . . . . . . . A.3.3 Working with graphics . . . A.4 TEX on Linux . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Bibliography Index
List of Figures
1.1 1.2 4.1 4.2 6.1 6.2
A A Minimal L TEX File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of a Realistic Journal Article. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 8 77 89
Example fancyhdr Setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample code for the beamer class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example Package. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Page Layout Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
List of Tables
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 Document Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . Document Class Options. . . . . . . . Some of the Packages Distributed with A The Predened Page Styles of L TEX. . A bag full of Euro symbols . . . . . Accents and Special Characters. . . . Preamble for Portuguese documents. Special commands for French. . . . . German Special Characters. . . . . . Preamble for Greek documents. . . . Greek Special Characters. . . . . . . Bulgarian, Russian, and Ukrainian . Float Placing Permissions. . . . . . . Math Mode Accents. . . . . . . Greek Letters. . . . . . . . . . . Binary Relations. . . . . . . . . Binary Operators. . . . . . . . BIG Operators. . . . . . . . . . Arrows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arrows as Accents. . . . . . . . Delimiters. . . . . . . . . . . . Large Delimiters. . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous Symbols. . . . . Non-Mathematical Symbols. . . AMS Delimiters. . . . . . . . . AMS Greek and Hebrew. . . . Math Alphabets. . . . . . . . . AMS Binary Operators. . . . . AMS Binary Relations. . . . . AMS Arrows. . . . . . . . . . . AMS Negated Binary Relations . . . . . . . . . .... .... A L TEX. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11 12 13 23 24 28 28 29 32 32 34 45 63 63 64 64 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 67 67 67 67 68 69 70
........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ and Arrows.
xiv
LIST OF TABLES 3.19 AMS Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 4.2 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Key Names for graphicx Package. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index Key Syntax Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fonts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Font Sizes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Absolute Point Sizes in Standard Classes. Math Fonts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TEX Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 72 75 110 110 111 111 115
Chapter 1
Things You Need to Know
The rst part of this chapter presents a short overview of the philosophy and A A history of LTEX 2 . The second part focuses on the basic structures of a LTEX document. After reading this chapter, you should have a rough knowledge of A how LTEX works, which you will need to understand the rest of this book.
1.1
1.1.1
The Name of the Game
TEX
TEX is a computer program created by Donald E. Knuth [2]. It is aimed at typesetting text and mathematical formulae. Knuth started writing the TEX typesetting engine in 1977 to explore the potential of the digital printing equipment that was beginning to inltrate the publishing industry at that time, especially in the hope that he could reverse the trend of deteriorating typographical quality that he saw aecting his own books and articles. TEX as we use it today was released in 1982, with some slight enhancements added in 1989 to better support 8-bit characters and multiple languages. TEX is renowned for being extremely stable, for running on many dierent kinds of computers, and for being virtually bug free. The version number of TEX is converging to and is now at 3.141592. TEX is pronounced Tech, with a ch as in the German word Ach1 or in the Scottish Loch. The ch originates from the Greek alphabet where X is the letter ch or chi. TEX is also the rst syllable of the Greek word texnologia (technology). In an ASCII environment, TEX becomes TeX.
In german there are actually two pronounciations for ch and one might assume that the soft ch sound from Pech would be a more appropriate. Asked about this, Knuth wrote in the German Wikipedia: I do not get angry when people pronounce TEX in their favorite way . . . and in Germany many use a soft ch because the X follows the vowel e, not the harder ch that follows the vowel a. In Russia, tex is a very common word, pronounced tyekh. But I believe the most proper pronunciation is heard in Greece, where you have the harsher ch of ach and Loch.
1
2
Things You Need to Know
1.1.2
A L TEX
A L TEX enables authors to typeset and print their work at the highest typoA graphical quality, using a predened, professional layout. L TEX was originally written by Leslie Lamport [1]. It uses the TEX formatter as its typeA setting engine. These days L TEX is maintained by Frank Mittelbach. A X is pronounced Lay-tech or Lah-tech. If you refer to L T X in A L TE E A an ASCII environment, you type LaTeX. L TEX 2 is pronounced Lay-tech two e and typed LaTeX2e.
1.2
1.2.1
Basics
Author, Book Designer, and Typesetter
To publish something, authors give their typed manuscript to a publishing company. One of their book designers then decides the layout of the document (column width, fonts, space before and after headings, . . . ). The book designer writes his instructions into the manuscript and then gives it to a typesetter, who typesets the book according to these instructions. A human book designer tries to nd out what the author had in mind while writing the manuscript. He decides on chapter headings, citations, examples, formulae, etc. based on his professional knowledge and from the contents of the manuscript. A A In a L TEX environment, L TEX takes the role of the book designer and A uses TEX as its typesetter. But L TEX is only a program and therefore needs more guidance. The author has to provide additional information to describe the logical structure of his work. This information is written into A the text as L TEX commands. This is quite dierent from the WYSIWYG2 approach that most modern word processors, such as MS Word or Corel WordPerfect, take. With these applications, authors specify the document layout interactively while typing text into the computer. They can see on the screen how the nal work will look when it is printed. A When using L TEX it is not normally possible to see the nal output while typing the text, but the nal output can be previewed on the screen A after processing the le with L TEX. Then corrections can be made before actually sending the document to the printer.
1.2.2
Layout Design
Typographical design is a craft. Unskilled authors often commit serious formatting errors by assuming that book design is mostly a question of aestheticsIf a document looks good artistically, it is well designed. But
2
What you see is what you get.
1.2 Basics as a document has to be read and not hung up in a picture gallery, the readability and understandability is much more important than the beautiful look of it. Examples: The font size and the numbering of headings have to be chosen to make the structure of chapters and sections clear to the reader. The line length has to be short enough not to strain the eyes of the reader, while long enough to ll the page beautifully. With WYSIWYG systems, authors often generate aesthetically pleasing A documents with very little or inconsistent structure. L TEX prevents such formatting errors by forcing the author to declare the logical structure of his A document. L TEX then chooses the most suitable layout.
3
1.2.3
Advantages and Disadvantages
A When people from the WYSIWYG world meet people who use L TEX, they A often discuss the advantages of L TEX over a normal word processor or the opposite. The best thing you can do when such a discussion starts is to keep a low prole, since such discussions often get out of hand. But sometimes you cannot escape . . . A So here is some ammunition. The main advantages of L TEX over normal word processors are the following:
Professionally crafted layouts are available, which make a document really look as if printed. The typesetting of mathematical formulae is supported in a convenient way. Users only need to learn a few easy-to-understand commands that specify the logical structure of a document. They almost never need to tinker with the actual layout of the document. Even complex structures such as footnotes, references, table of contents, and bibliographies can be generated easily. Free add-on packages exist for many typographical tasks not directly A supported by basic L TEX. For example, packages are available to include PostScript graphics or to typeset bibliographies conforming to exact standards. Many of these add-on packages are described in A The L TEX Companion [3].
A L TEX encourages authors to write well-structured texts, because this A is how L TEX worksby specifying structure.
4
Things You Need to Know
A TEX, the formatting engine of L TEX 2 , is highly portable and free. Therefore the system runs on almost any hardware platform available.
A L TEX also has some disadvantages, and I guess its a bit dicult for me to nd any sensible ones, though I am sure other people can tell you hundreds ;-) A L TEX does not work well for people who have sold their souls . . .
Although some parameters can be adjusted within a predened document layout, the design of a whole new layout is dicult and takes a lot of time.3 It is very hard to write unstructured and disorganized documents. Your hamster might, despite some encouraging rst steps, never be able to fully grasp the concept of Logical Markup.
1.3
A L TEX Input Files
A The input for L TEX is a plain ASCII text le. You can create it with any text editor. It contains the text of the document, as well as the commands A that tell L TEX how to typeset the text.
1.3.1
Spaces
Whitespace characters, such as blank or tab, are treated uniformly as A space by L TEX. Several consecutive whitespace characters are treated as one space. Whitespace at the start of a line is generally ignored, and a single line break is treated as whitespace. An empty line between two lines of text denes the end of a paragraph. Several empty lines are treated the same as one empty line. The text below is an example. On the left hand side is the text from the input le, and on the right hand side is the formatted output.
It does not matter whether you enter one or several spaces after a word. An empty line starts a new paragraph.
It does not matter whether you enter one or several spaces after a word. An empty line starts a new paragraph.
A LT
Rumour says that this is one of the key elements that will be addressed in the upcoming EX3 system.
3
A 1.3 L TEX Input Files
5
1.3.2
Special Characters
The following symbols are reserved characters that either have a special A meaning under L TEX or are not available in all the fonts. If you enter them A directly in your text, they will normally not print, but rather coerce L TEX to do things you did not intend. # $ % ^ & _ { } ~ \
As you will see, these characters can be used in your documents all the same by adding a prex backslash:
\# \$ \% \^{} \& \_ \{ \} \~{} #$%&_{}
The other symbols and many more can be printed with special commands in mathematical formulae or as accents. The backslash character \ can not be entered by adding another backslash in front of it (\\); this sequence is used for line breaking.4
1.3.3
A L TEX Commands
A L TEX commands are case sensitive, and take one of the following two formats:
They start with a backslash \ and then have a name consisting of letters only. Command names are terminated by a space, a number or any other non-letter. They consist of a backslash and exactly one non-letter.
A L TEX ignores whitespace after commands. If you want to get a space after a command, you have to put either {} and a blank or a special spacing A command after the command name. The {} stops L TEX from eating up all the space after the command name.
I read that Knuth divides the people working with \TeX{} into \TeX{}nicians and \TeX perts.\\ Today is \today.
I read that Knuth divides the people working with TEX into TEXnicians and TEXperts. Today is September 25, 2008.
Some commands need a parameter, which has to be given between curly braces { } after the command name. Some commands support optional parameters, which are added after the command name in square brackets [ ].
4
Try the $\backslash$ command instead. It produces a \.
6
Things You Need to Know
A The next examples use some L TEX commands. Dont worry about them; they will be explained later.
You can \textsl{lean} on me!
You can lean on me!
Please, start a new line right here!\newline Thank you!
Please, start a new line right here! Thank you!
1.3.4
Comments
A When L TEX encounters a % character while processing an input le, it ignores the rest of the present line, the line break, and all whitespace at the beginning of the next line. This can be used to write notes into the input le, which will not show up in the printed version.
This is an % stupid % Better: instructive <---example: Supercal% ifragilist% icexpialidocious
This is an example: Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious
The % character can also be used to split long input lines where no whitespace or line breaks are allowed. For longer comments you could use the comment environment provided by the verbatim package. This means, that you have to add the line \usepackage{verbatim} to the preamble of your document as explained below before you can use this command.
This is another \begin{comment} rather stupid, but helpful \end{comment} example for embedding comments in your document.
This is another example for embedding comments in your document.
Note that this wont work inside complex environments, like math for example.
1.4 Input File Structure
7
1.4
Input File Structure
A When L TEX 2 processes an input le, it expects it to follow a certain structure. Thus every input le must start with the command
\documentclass{...} This species what sort of document you intend to write. After that, you can include commands that inuence the style of the whole document, or A you can load packages that add new features to the L TEX system. To load such a package you use the command \usepackage{...} When all the setup work is done,5 you start the body of the text with the command \begin{document}
A Now you enter the text mixed with some useful L TEX commands. At the end of the document you add the
\end{document}
A command, which tells L TEX to call it a day. Anything that follows this A command will be ignored by L TEX. A Figure 1.1 shows the contents of a minimal L TEX 2 le. A slightly more complicated input le is given in Figure 1.2.
1.5
A Typical Command Line Session
A I bet you must be dying to try out the neat small L TEX input le shown A X itself comes without a GUI or fancy on page 7. Here is some help: L TE buttons to press. It is just a program that crunches away at your input A le. Some L TEX installations feature a graphical front-end where you can A X into compiling your input le. On other systems there might click L TE
5
The area between \documentclass and \begin{document} is called the preamble.
\documentclass{article} \begin{document} Small is beautiful. \end{document}
A Figure 1.1: A Minimal L TEX File.
8
Things You Need to Know
A be some typing involved, so here is how to coax L TEX into compiling your input le on a text based system. Please note: this description assumes that A a working L TEX installation already sits on your computer.6
A 1. Edit/Create your L TEX input le. This le must be plain ASCII text. On Unix all the editors will create just that. On Windows you might want to make sure that you save the le in ASCII or Plain Text format. When picking a name for your le, make sure it bears the extension .tex. A 2. Run L TEX on your input le. If successful you will end up with a .dvi A le. It may be necessary to run L TEX several times to get the table of contents and all internal references right. When your input le has A a bug L TEX will tell you about it and stop processing your input le. Type ctrl-D to get back to the command line.
latex foo.tex
3. Now you may view the DVI le. There are several ways to do that.
This is the case with most well groomed Unix Systems, and . . . Real Men use Unix, so . . . ;-)
6
\documentclass[a4paper,11pt]{article} % define the title \author{H.~Partl} \title{Minimalism} \begin{document} % generates the title \maketitle % insert the table of contents \tableofcontents \section{Some Interesting Words} Well, and here begins my lovely article. \section{Good Bye World} \ldots{} and here it ends. \end{document}
Figure 1.2: Example of a Realistic Journal Article. Note that all the commands you see in this example will be explained later in the introduction.
1.6 The Layout of the Document You can show the le on screen with
xdvi foo.dvi &
9
This only works on Unix with X11. If you are on Windows you might want to try yap (yet another previewer). You can also convert the dvi le to PostScript for printing or viewing with Ghostscript.
dvips -Pcmz foo.dvi -o foo.ps
A If you are lucky your L TEX system even comes with the dvipdf tool, which allows you to convert your .dvi les straight into pdf.
dvipdf foo.dvi
1.6
1.6.1
The Layout of the Document
Document Classes
A The rst information L TEX needs to know when processing an input le is the type of document the author wants to create. This is specied with the \documentclass command.
\documentclass[options]{class}
Here class species the type of document to be created. Table 1.1 lists the A document classes explained in this introduction. The L TEX 2 distribution provides additional classes for other documents, including letters and slides. The options parameter customises the behaviour of the document class. The options have to be separated by commas. The most common options for the standard document classes are listed in Table 1.2. A Example: An input le for a L TEX document could start with the line \documentclass[11pt,twoside,a4paper]{article}
A which instructs L TEX to typeset the document as an article with a base font size of eleven points, and to produce a layout suitable for double sided printing on A4 paper.
10
Things You Need to Know
1.6.2
Packages
While writing your document, you will probably nd that there are some A areas where basic L TEX cannot solve your problem. If you want to include graphics, coloured text or source code from a le into your document, you A need to enhance the capabilities of L TEX. Such enhancements are called packages. Packages are activated with the
\usepackage[options]{package}
command, where package is the name of the package and options is a list of keywords that trigger special features in the package. Some packages come A with the L TEX 2 base distribution (See Table 1.3). Others are provided separately. You may nd more information on the packages installed at your site in your Local Guide [5]. The prime source for information about A A L TEX packages is The L TEX Companion [3]. It contains descriptions on hundreds of packages, along with information of how to write your own A extensions to L TEX 2 . Modern TEX distributions come with a large number of packages preinstalled. If you are working on a Unix system, use the command texdoc for accessing package documentation.
Table 1.1: Document Classes. article for articles in scientic journals, presentations, short reports, program documentation, invitations, . . . proc a class for proceedings based on the article class. minimal is as small as it can get. It only sets a page size and a base font. It is mainly used for debugging purposes. report for longer reports containing several chapters, small books, PhD theses, . . . book for real books slides for slides. The class uses big sans serif letters. You might want to consider using the Beamer class instead.
1.6 The Layout of the Document
11
Table 1.2: Document Class Options. 10pt, 11pt, 12pt Sets the size of the main font in the document. If no option is specied, 10pt is assumed. a4paper, letterpaper, . . . Denes the paper size. The default size is letterpaper. Besides that, a5paper, b5paper, executivepaper, and legalpaper can be specied. fleqn Typesets displayed formulae left-aligned instead of centred.
leqno Places the numbering of formulae on the left hand side instead of the right. titlepage, notitlepage Species whether a new page should be started after the document title or not. The article class does not start a new page by default, while report and book do.
A onecolumn, twocolumn Instructs L TEX to typeset the document in one column or two columns.
twoside, oneside Species whether double or single sided output should be generated. The classes article and report are single sided and the book class is double sided by default. Note that this option concerns the style of the document only. The option twoside does not tell the printer you use that it should actually make a two-sided printout. landscape mode. Changes the layout of the document to print in landscape
openright, openany Makes chapters begin either only on right hand pages or on the next page available. This does not work with the article class, as it does not know about chapters. The report class by default starts chapters on the next page available and the book class starts them on right hand pages.
12
Things You Need to Know
A Table 1.3: Some of the Packages Distributed with L TEX.
A doc Allows the documentation of L TEX programs. a and in The L T X Companion [3]. A Described in doc.dtx E
exscale Provides scaled versions of the math extension font. Described in ltexscale.dtx.
A fontenc Species which font encoding L TEX should use. Described in ltoutenc.dtx.
ifthen Provides commands of the form if. . . then do. . . otherwise do. . . . A Described in ifthen.dtx and The L TEX Companion [3].
A latexsym To access the L TEX symbol font, you should use the latexsym A package. Described in latexsym.dtx and in The L TEX Companion [3].
makeidx Provides commands for producing indexes. Described in section 4.3 A and in The L TEX Companion [3]. syntonly Processes a document without typesetting it. inputenc Allows the specication of an input encoding such as ASCII, ISO Latin-1, ISO Latin-2, 437/850 IBM code pages, Apple Macintosh, Next, ANSI-Windows or user-dened one. Described in inputenc.dtx.
This le should be installed on your system, and you should be able to get a dvi le by typing latex doc.dtx in any directory where you have write permission. The same is true for all the other les mentioned in this table.
a
1.7 Files You Might Encounter
13
1.6.3
Page Styles
A L TEX supports three predened header/footer combinationsso-called page styles. The style parameter of the
\pagestyle{style}
command denes which one to use. Table 1.4 lists the predened page styles.
A Table 1.4: The Predened Page Styles of L TEX.
plain prints the page numbers on the bottom of the page, in the middle of the footer. This is the default page style. headings prints the current chapter heading and the page number in the header on each page, while the footer remains empty. (This is the style used in this document) empty sets both the header and the footer to be empty.
It is possible to change the page style of the current page with the command
\thispagestyle{style}
A description how to create your own headers and footers can be found A in The L TEX Companion [3] and in section 4.4 on page 76.
1.7
Files You Might Encounter
A When you work with L TEX you will soon nd yourself in a maze of les with various extensions and probably no clue. The following list explains the various le types you might encounter when working with TEX. Please note that this table does not claim to be a complete list of extensions, but if you nd one missing that you think is important, please drop me a line. A .tex L TEX or TEX input le. Can be compiled with latex. A A .sty L TEX Macro package. This is a le you can load into your L TEX document using the \usepackage command. A .dtx Documented TEX. This is the main distribution format for L TEX style les. If you process a .dtx le you get documented macro code of the A L TEX package contained in the .dtx le.
14
Things You Need to Know .ins The installer for the les contained in the matching .dtx le. If you A download a L TEX package from the net, you will normally get a .dtx A and a .ins le. Run L TEX on the .ins le to unpack the .dtx le. .cls Class les dene what your document looks like. They are selected with the \documentclass command.
A .fd Font description le telling L TEX about new fonts. A The following les are generated when you run L TEX on your input le: A .dvi Device Independent File. This is the main result of a L TEX compile run. You can look at its content with a DVI previewer program or you can send it to a printer with dvips or a similar application.
.log Gives a detailed account of what happened during the last compiler run. .toc Stores all your section headers. It gets read in for the next compiler run and is used to produce the table of content. .lof This is like .toc but for the list of gures. .lot And again the same for the list of tables. .aux Another le that transports information from one compiler run to the next. Among other things, the .aux le is used to store information associated with cross-references.
A .idx If your document contains an index. L TEX stores all the words that go into the index in this le. Process this le with makeindex. Refer to section 4.3 on page 75 for more information on indexing.
.ind The processed .idx le, ready for inclusion into your document on the next compile cycle. .ilg Logle telling what makeindex did.
1.8
Big Projects
When working on big documents, you might want to split the input le into A several parts. L TEX has two commands that help you to do that.
\include{lename}
You can use this command in the document body to insert the contents A of another le named lename.tex. Note that L TEX will start a new page before processing the material input from lename.tex.
1.8 Big Projects The second command can be used in the preamble. It allows you to A instruct L TEX to only input some of the \included les.
\includeonly{lename,lename,. . . }
15
After this command is executed in the preamble of the document, only \include commands for the lenames that are listed in the argument of the \includeonly command will be executed. Note that there must be no spaces between the lenames and the commas. The \include command starts typesetting the included text on a new page. This is helpful when you use \includeonly, because the page breaks will not move, even when some included les are omitted. Sometimes this might not be desirable. In this case, you can use the
\input{lename}
command. It simply includes the le specied. No ashy suits, no strings attached. A To make L TEX quickly check your document you can use the syntonly A package. This makes L TEX skim through your document only checking for proper syntax and usage of the commands, but doesnt produce any (DVI) A output. As L TEX runs faster in this mode you may save yourself valuable time. Usage is very simple: \usepackage{syntonly} \syntaxonly When you want to produce pages, just comment out the second line (by adding a percent sign).
Chapter 2
Typesetting Text
After reading the previous chapter, you should know about the basic stu of A which a LTEX 2 document is made. In this chapter I will ll in the remaining structure you will need to know in order to produce real world material.
2.1
The Structure of Text and Language
By Hanspeter Schmid <[e-mail]>
The main point of writing a text (some modern DAAC1 literature excluded), is to convey ideas, information, or knowledge to the reader. The reader will understand the text better if these ideas are well-structured, and will see and feel this structure much better if the typographical form reects the logical and semantical structure of the content. A L TEX is dierent from other typesetting systems in that you just have to tell it the logical and semantical structure of a text. It then derives the typographical form of the text according to the rules given in the document class le and in various style les. A The most important text unit in L TEX (and in typography) is the paragraph. We call it text unit because a paragraph is the typographical form that should reect one coherent thought, or one idea. You will learn in the following sections how you can force line breaks with e.g. \\, and paragraph breaks with e.g. leaving an empty line in the source code. Therefore, if a new thought begins, a new paragraph should begin, and if not, only line breaks should be used. If in doubt about paragraph breaks, think about your text as a conveyor of ideas and thoughts. If you have a paragraph break, but the old thought continues, it should be removed. If some totally new line of thought occurs in the same paragraph, then it should be broken. Most people completely underestimate the importance of well-placed paragraph breaks. Many people do not even know what the meaning of
Dierent At All Cost, a translation of the Swiss German UVA (Ums Verrecken Anders).
1
18
Typesetting Text
A a paragraph break is, or, especially in L TEX, introduce paragraph breaks without knowing it. The latter mistake is especially easy to make if equations are used in the text. Look at the following examples, and gure out why sometimes empty lines (paragraph breaks) are used before and after the equation, and sometimes not. (If you dont yet understand all commands well enough to understand these examples, please read this and the following chapter, and then read this section again.)
% Example 1 \ldots when Einstein introduced his formula \begin{equation} e = m \cdot c^2 \; , \end{equation} which is at the same time the most widely known and the least well understood physical formula.
% Example 2 \ldots from which follows Kirchhoffs current law: \begin{equation} \sum_{k=1}^{n} I_k = 0 \; . \end{equation} Kirchhoffs voltage law can be derived \ldots
% Example 3 \ldots which has several advantages. \begin{equation} I_D = I_F - I_R \end{equation} is the core of a very different transistor model. \ldots The next smaller text unit is a sentence. In English texts, there is a larger space after a period that ends a sentence than after one that ends an A abbreviation. L TEX tries to gure out which one you wanted to have. If A L TEX gets it wrong, you must tell it what you want. This is explained later in this chapter. The structuring of text even extends to parts of sentences. Most languages have very complicated punctuation rules, but in many languages (including German and English), you will get almost every comma right if you remember what it represents: a short stop in the ow of language. If you are not sure about where to put a comma, read the sentence aloud and
2.2 Line Breaking and Page Breaking take a short breath at every comma. If this feels awkward at some place, delete that comma; if you feel the urge to breathe (or make a short stop) at some other place, insert a comma. Finally, the paragraphs of a text should also be structured logically at a higher level, by putting them into chapters, sections, subsections, and so on. However, the typographical eect of writing e.g. \section{The Structure of Text and Language} is so obvious that it is almost self-evident how these high-level structures should be used.
19
2.2
2.2.1
Line Breaking and Page Breaking
Justied Paragraphs
A Books are often typeset with each line having the same length. L TEX inserts the necessary line breaks and spaces between words by optimizing the contents of a whole paragraph. If necessary, it also hyphenates words that would not t comfortably on a line. How the paragraphs are typeset depends on the document class. Normally the rst line of a paragraph is indented, and there is no additional space between two paragraphs. Refer to section 6.3.2 for more information. A In special cases it might be necessary to order L TEX to break a line:
\\ or \newline
starts a new line without starting a new paragraph.
\\*
additionally prohibits a page break after the forced line break.
\newpage
starts a new page.
\linebreak[n], \nolinebreak[n], \pagebreak[n], \nopagebreak[n]
suggest places where a break may (or may not happen). They enable the author to inuence their actions with the optional argument n, which can be set to a number between zero and four. By setting n to a value below A 4, you leave L TEX the option of ignoring your command if the result would look very bad. Do not confuse these break commands with the new A commands. Even when you give a break command, L TEX still tries to even out the right border of the line and the total length of the page, as described in the next section; this can lead to unpleasant gaps in your text.
20
Typesetting Text If you really want to start a new line or a new page, then use the corresponding command. Guess their names! A L TEX always tries to produce the best line breaks possible. If it cannot nd a way to break the lines in a manner that meets its high standards, it A lets one line stick out on the right of the paragraph. L TEX then complains (overfull hbox) while processing the input le. This happens most often A when L TEX cannot nd a suitable place to hyphenate a word.2 You can inA struct L TEX to lower its standards a little by giving the \sloppy command. It prevents such over-long lines by increasing the inter-word spacingeven if the nal output is not optimal. In this case a warning (underfull hbox) is given to the user. In most such cases the result doesnt look very good. A The command \fussy brings L TEX back to its default behaviour.
2.2.2
Hyphenation
A L TEX hyphenates words whenever necessary. If the hyphenation algorithm does not nd the correct hyphenation points, you can remedy the situation by using the following commands to tell TEX about the exception. The command
\hyphenation{word list}
causes the words listed in the argument to be hyphenated only at the points marked by -. The argument of the command should only contain words built from normal letters, or rather signs that are considered to be normal A letters by L TEX. The hyphenation hints are stored for the language that is active when the hyphenation command occurs. This means that if you place a hyphenation command into the preamble of your document it will inuence the English language hyphenation. If you place the command after the \begin{document} and you are using some package for national language support like babel, then the hyphenation hints will be active in the language activated through babel. The example below will allow hyphenation to be hyphenated as well as Hyphenation, and it prevents FORTRAN, Fortran and fortran from being hyphenated at all. No special characters or symbols are allowed in the argument. Example: \hyphenation{FORTRAN Hy-phen-a-tion}
2 A Although L TEX gives you a warning when that happens (Overfull hbox) and displays the oending line, such lines are not always easy to nd. If you use the option draft in the \documentclass command, these lines will be marked with a thick black line on the right margin.
2.3 Ready-Made Strings The command \- inserts a discretionary hyphen into a word. This also becomes the only point hyphenation is allowed in this word. This command is especially useful for words containing special characters (e.g. accented A characters), because L TEX does not automatically hyphenate words containing special characters.
I think this is: su\-per\-cal\-% i\-frag\-i\-lis\-tic\-ex\-pi\-% al\-i\-do\-cious I think this is: supercalifragilisticexpialidocious
21
Several words can be kept together on one line with the command
\mbox{text}
It causes its argument to be kept together under all circumstances.
My phone number will change soon. It will be \mbox{0116 291 2319}. The parameter \mbox{\emph{filename}} should contain the name of the file. My phone number will change soon. It will be 0116 291 2319. The parameter lename should contain the name of the le.
\fbox is similar to \mbox, but in addition there will be a visible box drawn around the content.
2.3
Ready-Made Strings
In some of the examples on the previous pages, you have seen some very A simple L TEX commands for typesetting special text strings: Command \today \TeX \LaTeX \LaTeXe Example September 25, 2008 TEX A L TEX A L TEX 2 Description Current date Your favorite typesetter The Name of the Game The current incarnation
2.4
2.4.1
Special Characters and Symbols
Quotation Marks
You should not use the " for quotation marks as you would on a typewriter. In publishing there are special opening and closing quotation marks. In A L TEX, use two (grave accent) for opening quotation marks and two (vertical quote) for closing quotation marks. For single quotes you use just one of each.
22
Typesetting Text
Please press the x key.
Please press the x key.
Yes I know the rendering is not ideal, its really a back-tick or grave accent ( ) for opening quotes and vertical quote ( ) for closing, despite what the font chosen might suggest.
2.4.2
Dashes and Hyphens
A L TEX knows four kinds of dashes. You can access three of them with dierent numbers of consecutive dashes. The fourth sign is actually not a dash at allit is the mathematical minus sign:
daughter-in-law, X-rated\\ pages 13--67\\ yes---or no? \\ $0$, $1$ and $-1$
daughter-in-law, X-rated pages 1367 yesor no? 0, 1 and 1
The names for these dashes are: - hyphen, en-dash, em-dash and minus sign.
2.4.3
Tilde ()
A character often seen in web addresses is the tilde. To generate this in A L TEX you can use \~ but the result: is not really what you want. Try this instead:
http://www.rich.edu/bush http://www.clever.edu/demo
http://www.rich.edu/\~{}bush \\ http://www.clever.edu/$\sim$demo
2.4.4
Degree Symbol ()
A The following example shows how to print a degree symbol in L TEX:
Its $-30\,^{\circ}\mathrm{C}$. I will soon start to super-conduct.
Its 30 C. I will soon start to superconduct.
The textcomp package makes the degree symbol also available as \textcelsius.
2.4 Special Characters and Symbols
23
2.4.5
The Euro Currency Symbol (e)
When writing about money these days, you need the Euro symbol. Many current fonts contain a Euro symbol. After loading the textcomp package in the preamble of your document
\usepackage{textcomp}
you can use the command
\texteuro
to access it. If your font does not provide its own Euro symbol or if you do not like the fonts Euro symbol, you have two more choices: First the eurosym package. It provides the ocial Euro symbol:
\usepackage[ocial]{eurosym}
If you prefer a Euro symbol that matches your font, use the option gen in place of the official option. Table 2.1: A bag full of Euro symbols LM+textcomp eurosym [gen]eurosym \texteuro \euro \euro
eee AAA CCC
2.4.6
Ellipsis (. . . )
On a typewriter, a comma or a period takes the same amount of space as any other letter. In book printing, these characters occupy only a little space and are set very close to the preceding letter. Therefore, you cannot enter ellipsis by just typing three dots, as the spacing would be wrong. Instead, there is a special command for these dots. It is called
\ldots
Not like this ... but like this:\\ New York, Tokyo, Budapest, \ldots
Not like this ... but like this: New York, Tokyo, Budapest, . . .
24
Typesetting Text
2.4.7
Ligatures
Some letter combinations are typeset not just by setting the dierent letters one after the other, but by actually using special symbols.
. . .
instead of
ff fi fl ffi . . .
These so-called ligatures can be prohibited by inserting an \mbox{} between the two letters in question. This might be necessary with words built from two words.
\Large Not shelfful\\ but shelf\mbox{}ful
Not shelul but shelfful
2.4.8
Accents and Special Characters
A L TEX supports the use of accents and special characters from many languages. Table 2.2 shows all sorts of accents being applied to the letter o. Naturally other letters work too. To place an accent on top of an i or a j, its dots have to be removed. This is accomplished by typing \i and \j.
H\^otel, na\"\i ve, \el\eve,\\ sm\o rrebr\o d, !Se\~norita!,\\ Sch\"onbrunner Schlo\ss{} Stra\ss e
Htel, nave, lve, smrrebrd, Seorita!, Schnbrunner Schlo Strae
Table 2.2: Accents and Special Characters. o o o . \o \=o \u o \d o \oe \aa \o \i o o o \o \.o \v o \b o \OE \AA \O \j oo \^o \"o \H o \t oo \ae \l ! o \~o \c c \c o \AE \L ?
2.5 International Language Support
25
2.5
International Language Support
When you write documents in languages other than English, there are three A areas where L TEX has to be congured appropriately: 1. All automatically generated text strings3 have to be adapted to the new language. For many languages, these changes can be accomplished by using the babel package by Johannes Braams.
A 2. L TEX needs to know the hyphenation rules for the new language. A Getting hyphenation rules into L TEX is a bit more tricky. It means rebuilding the format le with dierent hyphenation patterns enabled. Your Local Guide [5] should give more information on this.
3. Language specic typographic rules. In French for example, there is a mandatory space before each colon character (:). If your system is already congured appropriately, you can activate the babel package by adding the command
\usepackage[language]{babel}
after the \documentclass command. A list of the languages built into your A L TEX system will be displayed every time the compiler is started. Babel will automatically activate the appropriate hyphenation rules for the language A you choose. If your L TEX format does not support hyphenation in the language of your choice, babel will still work but will disable hyphenation, which has quite a negative eect on the appearance of the typeset document. Babel also species new commands for some languages, which simplify the input of special characters. The German language, for example, contains a lot of umlauts (). With babel, you can enter an by typing "o instead of \"o. If you call babel with multiple languages
\usepackage[languageA,languageB]{babel}
then the last language in the option list will be active (i.e. languageB). You can to use the command
\selectlanguage{languageA}
to change the active language. Most of the modern computer systems allow you to input letter of national alphabets directly from the keyboard. In order to handle variety of
3
Table of Contents, List of Figures, . . .
26
Typesetting Text input encoding used for dierent groups of languages and/or on dierent A computer platforms L TEX employs the inputenc package:
\usepackage[encoding]{inputenc}
When using this package, you should consider that other people might not be able to display your input les on their computer, because they use a dierent encoding. For example, the German umlaut on OS/2 is encoded as 132, on Unix systems using ISO-LATIN 1 it is encoded as 228, while in Cyrillic encoding cp1251 for Windows this letter does not exist at all; therefore you should use this feature with care. The following encodings may come in handy, depending on the type of system you are working on4 Operating system Mac Unix Windows DOS, OS/2 encodings western Latin Cyrillic applemac macukr latin1 koi8-ru ansinew cp1251 cp850 cp866nav
If you have a multilingual document with conicting input encodings, you might want to switch to unicode, using the ucs package.
\usepackage{ucs} \usepackage[utf8x]{inputenc}
A will enable you to create L TEX input les in utf8x, a multi-byte encoding in which each character can be encoded in as little as one byte and as many as four bytes. Font encoding is a dierent matter. It denes at which position inside a TEX-font each letter is stored. Multiple input encodings could be mapped into one font encoding, which reduces number of required font sets. Font encodings are handled through fontenc package:
\usepackage[encoding]{fontenc}
where encoding is font encoding. It is possible to load several encodings simultaneously. A The default L TEX font encoding is OT1, the encoding of the original Computer Modern TEX font. It contains only the 128 characters of the 7-bit ASCII character set. When accented characters are required, TEX
To learn more about supported input encodings for Latin-based and Cyrillic-based languages, read the documentation for inputenc.dtx and cyinpenc.dtx respectively. Section 4.6 tells how to produce package documentation.
4
2.5 International Language Support creates them by combining a normal character with an accent. While the resulting output looks perfect, this approach stops the automatic hyphenation from working inside words containing accented characters. Besides, some of Latin letters could not be created by combining a normal character with an accent, to say nothing about letters of non-Latin alphabets, such as Greek or Cyrillic. To overcome these shortcomings, several 8-bit CM-like font sets were created. Extended Cork (EC) fonts in T1 encoding contains letters and punctuation characters for most of the European languages based on Latin script. The LH font set contains letters necessary to typeset documents in languages using Cyrillic script. Because of the large number of Cyrillic glyphs, they are arranged into four font encodingsT2A, T2B, T2C, and X2.5 The CB bundle contains fonts in LGR encoding for the composition of Greek text. By using these fonts you can improve/enable hyphenation in non-English documents. Another advantage of using new CM-like fonts is that they provide fonts of CM families in all weights, shapes, and optically scaled font sizes.
27
2.5.1
Support for Portuguese
By Demerson Andre Polli <[e-mail]>
To enable hyphenation and change all automatic text to Portuguese, use the command:
\usepackage[portuguese]{babel}
Or if you are in Brazil, substitute the language for brazilian. As there are a lot of accents in Portuguese you might want to use
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
to be able to input them correctly as well as
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
to get the hyphenation right. See table 2.3 for the preamble you need to write in the Portuguese language. Note that we are using the latin1 input encoding here, so this will not work on a Mac or on DOS. Just use the appropriate encoding for your system.
5
The list of languages supported by each of these encodings could be found in [11].
28
Typesetting Text
Table 2.3: Preamble for Portuguese documents. \usepackage[portuguese]{babel} \usepackage[latin1]{inputenc} \usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
2.5.2
Support for French
By Daniel Flipo <[e-mail]>
A Some hints for those creating French documents with L TEX: you can load French language support with the following command:
\usepackage[frenchb]{babel}
Note that, for historical reasons, the name of babels option for French is either frenchb or francais but not french. A This enables French hyphenation, if you have congured your L TEX system accordingly. It also changes all automatic text into French: \chapter prints Chapitre, \today prints the current date in French and so on. A set of new commands also becomes available, which allows you to write French input les more easily. Check out table 2.4 for inspiration. Table 2.4: Special commands for French. \og guillemets \fg{} M\up{me}, D\up{r} 1\ier{}, 1\iere{}, 1\ieres{} 2\ieme{} 4\iemes{} \No 1, \no 2 20~\degres C, 45\degres \bsc{M. Durand} \nombre{1234,56789} guillemets Mme, Dr 1er, 1re, 1res 2e 4es No 1, no 2 20 C, 45 M. Durand 1234,56789
You will also notice that the layout of lists changes when switching to the French language. For more information on what the frenchb option A of babel does and how you can customize its behaviour, run L TEX on le frenchb.dtx and read the produced le frenchb.dvi.
2.5 International Language Support
29
2.5.3
Support for German
A Some hints for those creating German documents with L TEX: you can load German language support with the following command:
\usepackage[german]{babel}
A This enables German hyphenation, if you have congured your L TEX system accordingly. It also changes all automatic text into German. Eg. Chapter becomes Kapitel. A set of new commands also becomes available, which allows you to write German input les more quickly even when you dont use the inputenc package. Check out table 2.5 for inspiration. With inputenc, all this becomes moot, but your text also is locked in a particular encoding world.
Table 2.5: German Special Characters. "a " "< or \flqq \flq \dq " "s " "> or \frqq \frq
In German books you often nd French quotation marks (guillemets). German typesetters, however, use them dierently. A quote in a German book would look like this. In the German speaking part of Switzerland, typesetters use guillemets the same way the French do. A major problem arises from the use of commands like \flq: If you use the OT1 font (which is the default font) the guillemets will look like the math symbol , which turns a typesetters stomach. T1 encoded fonts, on the other hand, do contain the required symbols. So if you are using this type of quote, make sure you use the T1 encoding. (\usepackage[T1]{fontenc})
2.5.4
Support for Korean6
A To use L TEX for typesetting Korean, we need to solve three problems:
1. We must be able to edit Korean input les. Korean input les must be in plain text format, but because Korean uses its own character
A Considering a number of issues Korean L TEX users have to cope with. This section was written by Karnes KIM on behalf of the Korean lshort translation team. It was translated into English by SHIN Jungshik and shortened by Tobi Oetiker. 6
30
Typesetting Text set outside the repertoire of US-ASCII, they will look rather strange with a normal ASCII editor. The two most widely used encodings for Korean text les are EUC-KR and its upward compatible extension used in Korean MS-Windows, CP949/Windows-949/UHC. In these encodings each US-ASCII character represents its normal ASCII character similar to other ASCII compatible encodings such as ISO-8859x, EUC-JP, Big5, or Shift_JIS. On the other hand, Hangul syllables, Hanjas (Chinese characters as used in Korea), Hangul Jamos, Hiraganas, Katakanas, Greek and Cyrillic characters and other symbols and letters drawn from KS X 1001 are represented by two consecutive octets. The rst has its MSB set. Until the mid-1990s, it took a considerable amount of time and eort to set up a Korean-capable environment under a non-localized (non-Korean) operating system. You can skim through the now much-outdated http://jshin.net/faq to get a glimpse of what it was like to use Korean under non-Korean OS in mid-1990s. These days all three major operating systems (Mac OS, Unix, Windows) come equipped with pretty decent multilingual support and internationalization features so that editing Korean text le is not so much of a problem anymore, even on non-Korean operating systems.
A 2. TEX and L TEX were originally written for scripts with no more than 256 characters in their alphabet. To make them work for languages with considerably more characters such as Korean7 or Chinese, a subfont mechanism was developed. It divides a single CJK font with thousands or tens of thousands of glyphs into a set of subfonts with 256 glyphs each. For Korean, there are three widely used packages; A A HL TEX by UN Koaunghi, hL TEXp by CHA Jaechoon and the CJK
Korean Hangul is an alphabetic script with 14 basic consonants and 10 basic vowels (Jamos). Unlike Latin or Cyrillic scripts, the individual characters have to be arranged in rectangular clusters about the same size as Chinese characters. Each cluster represents a syllable. An unlimited number of syllables can be formed out of this nite set of vowels and consonants. Modern Korean orthographic standards (both in South Korea and North Korea), however, put some restriction on the formation of these clusters. Therefore only a nite number of orthographically correct syllables exist. The Korean Character encoding denes individual code points for each of these syllables (KS X 1001:1998 and KS X 1002:1992). So Hangul, albeit alphabetic, is treated like the Chinese and Japanese writing systems with tens of thousands of ideographic/logographic characters. ISO 10646/Unicode oers both ways of representing Hangul used for modern Korean by encoding Conjoining Hangul Jamos (alphabets: http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/ U1100.pdf) in addition to encoding all the orthographically allowed Hangul syllables in modern Korean (http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UAC00.pdf). One of the most A daunting challenges in Korean typesetting with L TEX and related typesetting system is supporting Middle Koreanand possibly future Koreansyllables that can be only represented by conjoining Jamos in Unicode. It is hoped that future TEX engines like and will eventually provide solutions to this so that some Korean linguists and historians will defect from MS Word that already has a pretty good support for Middle Korean.
7
2.5 International Language Support
A A package by Werner Lemberg.8 HL TEX and hL TEXp are specic to Korean and provide Korean localization on top of the font support. They A both can process Korean input text les encoded in EUC-KR. HL TEX can even process input les encoded in CP949/Windows-949/UHC and UTF-8 when used along with , .
31
The CJK package is not specic to Korean. It can process input les in UTF-8 as well as in various CJK encodings including EUC-KR and CP949/Windows-949/UHC, it can be used to typeset documents with multilingual content (especially Chinese, Japanese and Korean). The CJK package has no Korean localization such as the one oered by A HL TEX and it does not come with as many special Korean fonts as A HL TEX. 3. The ultimate purpose of using typesetting programs like TEX and A L TEX is to get documents typeset in an aesthetically satisfying way. Arguably the most important element in typesetting is a set of wellA designed fonts. The HL TEX distribution includes UHC PostScript fonts of 10 dierent families and Munhwabu9 fonts (TrueType) of 5 dierent families. The CJK package works with a set of fonts used by A earlier versions of HL TEX and it can use Bitstreams cyberbit TrueType font.
A To use the HL TEX package for typesetting your Korean text, put the following declaration into the preamble of your document:
\usepackage{hangul}
This command turns the Korean localization on. The headings of chapters, sections, subsections, table of content and table of gures are all translated into Korean and the formatting of the document is changed to follow Korean conventions. The package also provides automatic particle selection. In Korean, there are pairs of post-x particles grammatically equivalent but dierent in form. Which of any given pair is correct depends on whether the preceding syllable ends with a vowel or a consonant. (It is a bit more complex than this, but this should give you a good picture.) Native Korean speakers have no problem picking the right particle, but it cannot be determined which particle to use for references and other automatic text that will change while you edit the document. It takes a painstaking eort to place appropriate particles manually every time you add/remove referA ences or simply shue parts of your document around. HL TEX relieves its users from this boring and error-prone process.
They can be obtained at language/korean/HLaTeX/ language/korean/CJK/ and http://knot.kaist.ac.kr/htex/ 9 Korean Ministry of Culture.
8
32
Typesetting Text
Table 2.6: Preamble for Greek documents. \usepackage[english,greek]{babel} \usepackage[iso-8859-7]{inputenc}
In case you dont need Korean localization features but just want to typeset Korean text, you can put the following line in the preamble, instead.
\usepackage{hfont}
A A For more details on typesetting Korean with HL TEX, refer to the HL TEX Guide. Check out the web site of the Korean TEX User Group (KTUG) at http://www.ktug.or.kr/. There is also a Korean translation of this manual available.
2.5.5
Writing in Greek
By Nikolaos Pothitos <[e-mail]>
See table 2.6 for the preamble you need to write in the Greek language. This preamble enables hyphenation and changes all automatic text to Greek.10 A set of new commands also becomes available, which allows you to write Greek input les more easily. In order to temporarily switch to English and vice versa, one can use the commands \textlatin{english text} and \textgreek{greek text} that both take one argument which is then typeset using the requested font encoding. Otherwise you can use the command \selectlanguage{...} described in a previous section. Check out table 2.7 for some Greek punctuation characters. Use \euro for the Euro symbol. Table 2.7: Greek Special Characters. ; (( ? )) ;
If you select the utf8x option for the package inputenc, you can type Greek and polytonic Greek unicode characters.
10
2.6 The Space Between Words
33
2.5.6
Support for Cyrillic
By Maksym Polyakov <[e-mail]>
Version 3.7h of babel includes support for the T2* encodings and for typesetting Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian texts using Cyrillic letters. A Support for Cyrillic is based on standard L TEX mechanisms plus the fontenc and inputenc packages. But, if you are going to use Cyrillics in math mode, you need to load mathtext package before fontenc:11
\usepackage{mathtext} \usepackage[T1,T2A]{fontenc} \usepackage[koi8-ru]{inputenc} \usepackage[english,bulgarian,russian,ukranian]{babel}
Generally, babel will authomatically choose the default font encoding, for the above three languages this is T2A. However, documents are not restricted to a single font encoding. For multi-lingual documents using Cyrillic and Latin-based languages it makes sense to include Latin font encoding explicitly. babel will take care of switching to the appropriate font encoding when a dierent language is selected within the document. In addition to enabling hyphenations, translating automatically generated text strings, and activating some language specic typographic rules (like \frenchspacing), babel provides some commands allowing typesetting according to the standards of Bulgarian, Russian, or Ukrainian languages. For all three languages, language specic punctuation is provided: The Cyrillic dash for the text (it is little narrower than Latin dash and surrounded by tiny spaces), a dash for direct speech, quotes, and commands to facilitate hyphenation, see Table 2.8. The Russian and Ukrainian options of babel dene the commands \Asbuk and \asbuk, which act like \Alph and \alph, but produce capital and small letters of Russian or Ukrainian alphabets (whichever is the active language of the document). The Bulgarian option of babel provides the commands \enumBul and \enumLat (\enumEng), which make \Alph and \alph produce letters of either Bulgarian or Latin (English) alphabets. The default behaviour of \Alph and \alph for the Bulgarian language option is to produce letters from the Bulgarian alphabet.
2.6
The Space Between Words
A To get a straight right margin in the output, L TEX inserts varying amounts of space between the words. It inserts slightly more space at the end of a A sentence, as this makes the text more readable. L TEX assumes that sentences end with periods, question marks or exclamation marks. If a period
11 A If you use AMS-L TEX packages, load them before fontenc and babel as well.
34
Typesetting Text
Table 2.8: The extra denitions made by Bulgarian, Russian, and Ukrainian options of babel "| disable ligature at this position. "an explicit hyphen sign, allowing hyphenation in the rest of the word. "--- Cyrillic emdash in plain text. "--~ Cyrillic emdash in compound names (surnames). "--* Cyrillic emdash for denoting direct speech. "" like "-, but producing no hyphen sign (for compound words with hyphen, e.g.x-""y or some other signs as disable/enable). "~ for a compound word mark without a breakpoint. "= for a compound word mark with a breakpoint, allowing hyphenation in the composing words. ", thinspace for initials with a breakpoint in following surname. " for German left double quotes (looks like ,,). " for German right double quotes (looks like ). "< for French left double quotes (looks like < <). "> for French right double quotes (looks like > >).
follows an uppercase letter, this is not taken as a sentence ending, since periods after uppercase letters normally occur in abbreviations. Any exception from these assumptions has to be specied by the author. A backslash in front of a space generates a space that will not be enlarged. A tilde ~ character generates a space that cannot be enlarged and additionally prohibits a line break. The command \@ in front of a period species that this period terminates a sentence even when it follows an uppercase letter.
Mr.~Smith was happy to see her\\ cf.~Fig.~5\\ I like BASIC\@. What about you?
Mr. Smith was happy to see her cf. Fig. 5 I like BASIC. What about you?
The additional space after periods can be disabled with the command
\frenchspacing
A which tells L TEX not to insert more space after a period than after ordinary character. This is very common in non-English languages, except bibliographies. If you use \frenchspacing, the command \@ is not necessary.
2.7 Titles, Chapters, and Sections
35
2.7
Titles, Chapters, and Sections
To help the reader nd his or her way through your work, you should divide A it into chapters, sections, and subsections. L TEX supports this with special commands that take the section title as their argument. It is up to you to use them in the correct order. The following sectioning commands are available for the article class:
\section{...} \subsection{...} \subsubsection{...} \paragraph{...} \subparagraph{...}
If you want to split your document in parts without inuencing the section or chapter numbering you can use
\part{...}
When you work with the report or book class, an additional top-level sectioning command becomes available
\chapter{...}
As the article class does not know about chapters, it is quite easy to add articles as chapters to a book. The spacing between sections, the A numbering and the font size of the titles will be set automatically by L TEX. Two of the sectioning commands are a bit special: The \part command does not inuence the numbering sequence of chapters. The \appendix command does not take an argument. It just changes the chapter numbering to letters.12
A L TEX creates a table of contents by taking the section headings and page numbers from the last compile cycle of the document. The command
\tableofcontents
expands to a table of contents at the place it is issued. A new document A has to be compiled (L TEXed) twice to get a correct table of contents. Sometimes it might be necessary to compile the document a third time. A L TEX will tell you when this is necessary.
12
For the article style it changes the section numbering.
36
Typesetting Text All sectioning commands listed above also exist as starred versions. A starred version of a command is built by adding a star * after the command name. This generates section headings that do not show up in the table of contents and are not numbered. The command \section{Help}, for example, would become \section*{Help}. Normally the section headings show up in the table of contents exactly as they are entered in the text. Sometimes this is not possible, because the heading is too long to t into the table of contents. The entry for the table of contents can then be specied as an optional argument in front of the actual heading. \chapter[Title for the table of contents]{A long and especially boring title, shown in the text} The title of the whole document is generated by issuing a
\maketitle
command. The contents of the title have to be dened by the commands
\title{...}, \author{...} and optionally \date{...}
before calling \maketitle. In the argument to \author, you can supply several names separated by \and commands. An example of some of the commands mentioned above can be found in Figure 1.2 on page 8. A Apart from the sectioning commands explained above, L TEX 2 introduced three additional commands for use with the book class. They are useful for dividing your publication. The commands alter chapter headings and page numbering to work as you would expect it in a book: \frontmatter should be the very rst command after the start of the document body (\begin{document}). It will switch page numbering to Roman numerals and sections be non-enumerated. As if you were using the starred sectioning commands (eg \chapter*{Preface}) but the sections will still show up in the table of contents. \mainmatter comes right before the rst chapter of the book. It turns on Arabic page numbering and restarts the page counter. \appendix marks the start of additional material in your book. After this command chapters will be numbered with letters. \backmatter should be inserted before the very last items in your book, such as the bibliography and the index. In the standard document classes, this has no visual eect.
2.8 Cross References
37
2.8
Cross References
In books, reports and articles, there are often cross-references to gures, A tables and special segments of text. L TEX provides the following commands for cross referencing
\label{marker}, \ref{marker} and \pageref{marker}
A where marker is an identier chosen by the user. L TEX replaces \ref by the number of the section, subsection, gure, table, or theorem after which the corresponding \label command was issued. \pageref prints the page number of the page where the \label command occurred.13 As with the section titles, the numbers from the previous run are used.
A reference to this subsection \label{sec:this} looks like: see section~\ref{sec:this} on page~\pageref{sec:this}.
A reference to this subsection looks like: see section 2.8 on page 37.
2.9
Footnotes
With the command
\footnote{footnote text}
a footnote is printed at the foot of the current page. Footnotes should always be put14 after the word or sentence they refer to. Footnotes referring to a sentence or part of it should therefore be put after the comma or period.15
Footnotesa are often used by people using A L TEX.
a
Footnotes\footnote{This is a footnote.} are often used by people using \LaTeX.
This is a footnote.
Note that these commands are not aware of what they refer to. \label just saves the last automatically generated number. 14 put is one of the most common English words. 15 Note that footnotes distract the reader from the main body of your document. After all, everybody reads the footnoteswe are a curious species, so why not just integrate everything you want to say into the body of the document?16 16 A guidepost doesnt necessarily go where its pointing to :-).
13
38
Typesetting Text
2.10
Emphasized Words
If a text is typed using a typewriter, important words are emphasized by underlining them.
\underline{text}
In printed books, however, words are emphasized by typesetting them A in an italic font. L TEX provides the command
\emph{text}
to emphasize text. What the command actually does with its argument depends on the context:
\emph{If you use emphasizing inside a piece of emphasized text, then \LaTeX{} uses the \emph{normal} font for emphasizing.}
If you use emphasizing inside a piece of A emphasized text, then L TEX uses the normal font for emphasizing.
A Please note the dierence between telling L TEX to emphasize something and telling it to use a dierent font:
\textit{You can also \emph{emphasize} text if it is set in italics,} \textsf{in a \emph{sans-serif} font,} \texttt{or in \emph{typewriter} style.}
You can also emphasize text if it is set in italics, in a sans-serif font, or in typewriter style.
2.11
Environments
text \end{environment}
\begin{environment}
Where environment is the name of the environment. Environments can be nested within each other as long as the correct nesting order is maintained. \begin{aaa}...\begin{bbb}...\end{bbb}...\end{aaa} In the following sections all important environments are explained.
2.11 Environments
39
2.11.1
Itemize, Enumerate, and Description
The itemize environment is suitable for simple lists, the enumerate environment for enumerated lists, and the description environment for descriptions.
\flushleft \begin{enumerate} \item You can mix the list environments to your taste: \begin{itemize} \item But it might start to look silly. \item[-] With a dash. \end{itemize} \item Therefore remember: \begin{description} \item[Stupid] things will not become smart because they are in a list. \item[Smart] things, though, can be presented beautifully in a list. \end{description} \end{enumerate}
1. You can mix the list environments to your taste: But it might start to look silly. - With a dash. 2. Therefore remember: Stupid things will not become smart because they are in a list. Smart things, though, can be presented beautifully in a list.
2.11.2
Flushleft, Flushright, and Center
The environments flushleft and flushright generate paragraphs that are either left- or right-aligned. The center environment generates centred A text. If you do not issue \\ to specify line breaks, L TEX will automatically determine line breaks.
\begin{flushleft} This text is\\ left-aligned. \LaTeX{} is not trying to make each line the same length. \end{flushleft}
This text is A left-aligned. L TEX is not trying to make each line the same length.
\begin{flushright} This text is right-\\aligned. \LaTeX{} is not trying to make each line the same length. \end{flushright}
This text is rightA aligned. L TEX is not trying to make each line the same length.
40
\begin{center} At the centre\\of the earth \end{center}
Typesetting Text
At the centre of the earth
2.11.3
Quote, Quotation, and Verse
The quote environment is useful for quotes, important phrases and examples.
A typographical rule of thumb for the line length is: \begin{quote} On average, no line should be longer than 66 characters. \end{quote} This is why \LaTeX{} pages have such large borders by default and also why multicolumn print is used in newspapers. A typographical rule of thumb for the line length is: On average, no line should be longer than 66 characters.
A This is why L TEX pages have such large borders by default and also why multicolumn print is used in newspapers.
There are two similar environments: the quotation and the verse environments. The quotation environment is useful for longer quotes going over several paragraphs, because it indents the rst line of each paragraph. The verse environment is useful for poems where the line breaks are important. The lines are separated by issuing a \\ at the end of a line and an empty line after each verse.
I know only one English poem by heart. It is about Humpty Dumpty. \begin{flushleft} \begin{verse} Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall:\\ Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.\\ All the Kings horses and all the Kings men\\ Couldnt put Humpty together again. \end{verse} \end{flushleft} I know only one English poem by heart. It is about Humpty Dumpty. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall: Humpty Dumpty had a great fall. All the Kings horses and all the Kings men Couldnt put Humpty together again.
2.11.4
Abstract
In scientic publications it is customary to start with an abstract which gives A the reader a quick overview of what to expect. L TEX provides the abstract environment for this purpose. Normally abstract is used in documents typeset with the article document class.
2.11 Environments
\begin{abstract} The abstract abstract. \end{abstract}
41
The abstract abstract.
2.11.5
Printing Verbatim
Text that is enclosed between \begin{verbatim} and \end{verbatim} will be directly printed, as if typed on a typewriter, with all line breaks and A spaces, without any L TEX command being executed. Within a paragraph, similar behavior can be accessed with
\verb+text+
The + is just an example of a delimiter character. You can use any character A except letters, * or space. Many L TEX examples in this booklet are typeset with this command.
The \verb|\ldots| command \ldots The \ldots command . . . \begin{verbatim} 10 PRINT "HELLO WORLD "; 20 GOTO 10 \end{verbatim} 10 PRINT "HELLO WORLD "; 20 GOTO 10
\begin{verbatim*} the starred version of the verbatim environment emphasizes the spaces in the text \end{verbatim*}
the starred version of the verbatim environment emphasizes the spaces in the text
The \verb command can be used in a similar fashion with a star:
\verb*|like this :-) | like this :-)
The verbatim environment and the \verb command may not be used within parameters of other commands.
2.11.6
Tabular
The tabular environment can be used to typeset beautiful tables with A optional horizontal and vertical lines. L TEX determines the width of the columns automatically.
42 The table spec argument of the
\begin{tabular}[pos]{table spec}
Typesetting Text
command denes the format of the table. Use an l for a column of leftaligned text, r for right-aligned text, and c for centred text; p{width } for a column containing justied text with line breaks, and | for a vertical line. A If the text in a column is too wide for the page, L TEX wont automatically wrap it. Using p{width } you can dene a special type of column which will wrap-around the text as in a normal paragraph. The pos argument species the vertical position of the table relative to the baseline of the surrounding text. Use either of the letters t , b and c to specify table alignment at the top, bottom or center. Within a tabular environment, & jumps to the next column, \\ starts a new line and \hline inserts a horizontal line. You can add partial lines by using the \cline{j-i}, where j and i are the column numbers the line should extend over.
\begin{tabular}{|r|l|} \hline 7C0 & hexadecimal \\ 3700 & octal \\ \cline{2-2} 11111000000 & binary \\ \hline \hline 1984 & decimal \\ \hline \end{tabular}
7C0 3700 11111000000 1984
hexadecimal octal binary decimal
\begin{tabular}{|p{4.7cm}|} \hline Welcome to Boxys paragraph. We sincerely hope youll all enjoy the show.\\ \hline \end{tabular}
Welcome to Boxys paragraph. We sincerely hope youll all enjoy the show.
The column separator can be specied with the @{...} construct. This command kills the inter-column space and replaces it with whatever is between the curly braces. One common use for this command is explained below in the decimal alignment problem. Another possible application is to suppress leading space in a table with @{} .
2.11 Environments
\begin{tabular}{@{} l @{}} \hline no leading space\\ \hline \end{tabular}
43
no leading space
\begin{tabular}{l} \hline leading space left and right\\ \hline \end{tabular}
leading space left and right
Since there is no built-in way to align numeric columns to a decimal point,17 we can cheat and do it by using two columns: a right-aligned integer and a left-aligned fraction. The @{.} command in the \begin{tabular} line replaces the normal inter-column spacing with just a ., giving the appearance of a single, decimal-point-justied column. Dont forget to replace the decimal point in your numbers with a column separator (&)! A column label can be placed above our numeric column by using the \multicolumn command.
\begin{tabular}{c r @{.} l} Pi expression & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Value} \\ \hline $\pi$ & 3&1416 \\ $\pi^{\pi}$ & 36&46 \\ $(\pi^{\pi})^{\pi}$ & 80662&7 \\ \end{tabular}
Pi expression ( )
Value 3.1416 36.46 80662.7
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|} \hline \multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Ene} \\ \hline Mene & Muh! \\ \hline \end{tabular}
Ene Mene Muh!
Material typeset with the tabular environment always stays together on one page. If you want to typeset long tables, you might want to use the longtable environments. A Sometimes the default L TEX tables to feel a bit cramped. So you may want to give them a bit more breathing space by setting a higher \arraystretch and \tabcolsep value.
17
If the tools bundle is installed on your system, have a look at the dcolumn package.
44
\begin{tabular}{|l|} \hline These lines\\\hline are tight\\\hline \end{tabular} {\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.5} \renewcommand{\tabcolsep}{0.2cm} \begin{tabular}{|l|} \hline less cramped\\\hline table layout\\\hline \end{tabular}}
Typesetting Text
These lines are tight less cramped table layout
If you just want to grow the height of a single row in your table you can do this with a invisible vertical bar18 Use a zero width \rule to implement this trick.
\begin{tabular}{|c|} \hline \rule{1pt}{4ex}Pitprop \ldots\\ \hline \rule{0pt}{4ex}Strut\\ \hline \end{tabular}
Pitprop . . . Strut
2.12
Floating Bodies
Today most publications contain a lot of gures and tables. These elements need special treatment, because they cannot be broken across pages. One method would be to start a new page every time a gure or a table is too large to t on the present page. This approach would leave pages partially empty, which looks very bad. The solution to this problem is to oat any gure or table that does not t on the current page to a later page, while lling the current page with A body text. L TEX oers two environments for oating bodies; one for tables and one for gures. To take full advantage of these two environments it is A important to understand approximately how L TEX handles oats internally. A Otherwise oats may become a major source of frustration, because L TEX never puts them where you want them to be.
A Lets rst have a look at the commands L TEX supplies for oats:
18
In professional typesetting, this is called a strut.
2.12 Floating Bodies Any material enclosed in a figure or table environment will be treated as oating matter. Both oat environments support an optional parameter
\begin{figure}[placement specier] or \begin{table}[. . . ]
A called the placement specier. This parameter is used to tell L TEX about the locations to which the oat is allowed to be moved. A placement specier is constructed by building a string of oat-placing permissions. See Table 2.9. A table could be started with the following line e.g.
45
\begin{table}[!hbp]
A The placement specier [!hbp] allows L TEX to place the table right here (h) or at the bottom (b) of some page or on a special oats page (p), and all this even if it does not look that good (!). If no placement specier is given, the standard classes assume [tbp]. A L TEX will place every oat it encounters according to the placement specier supplied by the author. If a oat cannot be placed on the current page it is deferred either to the gures or the tables queue.19 When a new A page is started, L TEX rst checks if it is possible to ll a special oat page with oats from the queues. If this is not possible, the rst oat on A each queue is treated as if it had just occurred in the text: L TEX tries again to place it according to its respective placement speciers (except h, which is no longer possible). Any new oats occurring in the text get placed A into the appropriate queues. L TEX strictly maintains the original order of
19
These are FIFOrst in rst outqueues!
Table 2.9: Float Placing Permissions. Spec h t b p ! Permission to place the oat . . . here at the very place in the text where it occurred. This is useful mainly for small oats. at the top of a page at the bottom of a page on a special page containing only oats. without considering most of the internal parametersa , which could stop this oat from being placed.
Note that pt and em are TEX units. Read more on this in table 6.5 on page 115.
a
Such as the maximum number of oats allowed on one page.
46
Typesetting Text appearance for each type of oat. Thats why a gure that cannot be placed pushes all further gures to the end of the document. Therefore:
A If L TEX is not placing the oats as you expected, it is often only one oat jamming one of the two oat queues. A While it is possible to give L TEX single-location placement speciers, this causes problems. If the oat does not t in the location specied it becomes stuck, blocking subsequent oats. In particular, you should never, A ever use the [h] optionit is so bad that in more recent versions of L TEX, it is automatically replaced by [ht].
Having explained the dicult bit, there are some more things to mention about the table and figure environments. With the
\caption{caption text}
command, you can dene a caption for the oat. A running number and A the string Figure or Table will be added by L TEX. The two commands
\listoffigures and \listoftables
operate analogously to the \tableofcontents command, printing a list of gures or tables, respectively. These lists will display the whole caption, so if you tend to use long captions you must have a shorter version of the caption for the lists. This is accomplished by entering the short version in brackets after the \caption command. \caption[Short]{LLLLLoooooonnnnnggggg} With \label and \ref, you can create a reference to a oat within your text. Note that the \label command must come after the \caption command since you want it to reference the number of the caption. The following example draws a square and inserts it into the document. You could use this if you wanted to reserve space for images you are going to paste into the nished document. Figure~\ref{white} is an example of Pop-Art. \begin{figure}[!hbtp] \makebox[\textwidth]{\framebox[5cm]{\rule{0pt}{5cm}}} \caption{Five by Five in Centimetres.\label{white}}[A \end{figure}
2.13 Protecting Fragile Commands
A In the example above, L TEX will try really hard (!) to place the gure right here (h).20 If this is not possible, it tries to place the gure at the bottom (b) of the page. Failing to place the gure on the current page, it determines whether it is possible to create a oat page containing this gure and maybe some tables from the tables queue. If there is not enough A material for a special oat page, L TEX starts a new page, and once more treats the gure as if it had just occurred in the text. Under certain circumstances it might be necessary to use the
47
\clearpage or even the \cleardoublepage
A command. It orders L TEX to immediately place all oats remaining in the queues and then start a new page. \cleardoublepage even goes to a new right-hand page. A You will learn how to include PostScript drawings into your L TEX 2 documents later in this introduction.
2.13
Protecting Fragile Commands
Text given as arguments of commands like \caption or \section may show up more than once in the document (e.g. in the table of contents as well as in the body of the document). Some commands will break when used in the argument of \section-like commands. Compilation of your document will fail. These commands are called fragile commandsfor example, \footnote or \phantom. These fragile commands need protection (dont we all?). You can protect them by putting the \protect command in front of them. \protect only refers to the command that follows right behind, not even to its arguments. In most cases a superuous \protect wont hurt. \section{I am considerate \protect\footnote{and protect my footnotes}}
20
assuming the gure queue is empty.
Chapter 3
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Now you are ready! In this chapter, we will attack the main strength of TEX: mathematical typesetting. But be warned, this chapter only scratches the surface. While the things explained here are sucient for many people, dont despair if you cant nd a solution to your mathematical typesetting needs here. A It is highly likely that your problem is addressed in AMS-LTEX.
3.1
A The AMS-L TEX bundle
A If you want to typeset (advanced) mathematics, you should use AMS-L TEX. A X bundle is a collection of packages and classes for matheThe AMS-L TE matical typesetting. We will mostly deal with the amsmath package which is A a part of the bundle. AMS-L TEX is produced by The American MathematA ical Society and it is used extensively for mathematical typesetting. L TEX itself does provide some basic features and environments for mathematics, A but they are limited (or maybe its the other way around: AMS-L TEX is unlimited!) and in some cases inconsistent. A AMS-L TEX is a part of the required distribution and is provided with all A X distributions.1 In this chapter, we assume amsmath is loaded recent L TE in the preamble; \usepackage{amsmath}.
3.2
Single Equations
There two ways to typeset mathematical formulae: in-line within a paragraph (text style), or the paragraph can be broken to typeset it separately (display style). Mathematical equations within a paragraph is entered between between $ and $:
1
If yours is missing it, go to CTAN:macros/latex/required/amslatex.
50
Add $a$ squared and $b$ squared to get $c$ squared. Or, using a more mathematical approach: $a^2 + b^2 = c^2$
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Add a squared and b squared to get c squared. Or, using a more mathematical approach: a2 + b2 = c2
\TeX{} is pronounced as $\tau\epsilon\chi$\\[5pt] 100~m$^{3}$ of water\\[5pt] This comes from my $\heartsuit$
TEX is pronounced as 100 m3 of water This comes from my
If you want your larger equations to be set apart from the rest of the paragraph, it is preferable to display them rather than to break the paragraph apart. To do this, you enclose them between \begin{equation} and \end{equation}.2 You can then \label an equation number and refer to it somewhere else in the text by using the \eqref command. If you want to name the equation something specic, you \tag it instead. You cant use \eqref with \tag.
Add $a$ squared and $b$ squared to get $c$ squared. Or, using a more mathematical approach \begin{equation} a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \end{equation} Einstein says \begin{equation} E = mc^2 \label{clever} \end{equation} He didnt say \begin{equation} 1 + 1 = 3 \tag{dumb} \end{equation} This is a reference to \eqref{clever}.
Add a squared and b squared to get c squared. Or, using a more mathematical approach a2 + b2 = c2 (3.1) Einstein says E = mc2 He didnt say 1+1=3 This is a reference to (3.2). (dumb) (3.2)
A If you dont want L TEX to number the equations, use the starred version of equation using an asterisk, equation*, or even easier, enclose the equation in \[ and \]:3
This is an amsmath command. If you dont have access to the package for some A obscure reason, you can use L TEXs own displaymath environment instead. 3 A This is again from amsmath. If you didnt load the package, use L TEXs own equation A environment instead. The naming of the amsmath/L TEX commands may seem a bit confusing, but its really not a problem since everybody uses amsmath anyway. In general, it is best to load the package from the beginning because you might use it later on, and A A then L TEXs unnumbered equation clashes with AMS-L TEXs numbered equation.
2
3.2 Single Equations
Add $a$ squared and $b$ squared to get $c$ squared. Or, using a more mathematical approach \begin{equation*} a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \end{equation*} or you can type less for the same effect: \[ a^2 + b^2 = c^2 \]
51
Add a squared and b squared to get c squared. Or, using a more mathematical approach a2 + b2 = c2 or you can type less for the same eect: a2 + b2 = c2
Note the dierence in typesetting style between text style and display style equations:
This is text style: $\lim_{n \to \infty} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{1}{k^2} = \frac{\pi^2}{6}$. And this is display style: \begin{equation} \lim_{n \to \infty} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{1}{k^2} = \frac{\pi^2}{6} \end{equation}
This is text style: limn And this is display style:
n n
n 1 k=1 k2
=
2 6.
lim
k=1
1 2 = 2 k 6
(3.3)
In text style, enclose tall or deep math expressions or sub expressions A in \smash. This makes L TEX ignore the height of these expressions. This keeps the line spacing even.
A $d_{e_{e_p}}$ mathematical expression followed by a $h^{i^{g^h}}$ expression. As opposed to a smashed \smash{$d_{e_{e_p}}$} expression followed by a \smash{$h^{i^{g^h}}$} expression.
A deep mathematical expression followed by a hi expression. As opposed to h a g smashed deep expression followed by a hi expression.
gh
3.2.1
Math Mode
There are also dierences between math mode and text mode. For example, in math mode: 1. Most spaces and line breaks do not have any signicance, as all spaces are either derived logically from the mathematical expressions, or have to be specied with special commands such as \,, \quad or \qquad (well get back to that later, see section 3.5). 2. Empty lines are not allowed. Only one paragraph per formula.
52
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae 3. Each letter is considered to be the name of a variable and will be typeset as such. If you want to typeset normal text within a formula (normal upright font and normal spacing) then you have to enter the text using the \text{...} command (see also section 3.6 on page 60).
$\forall x \in \mathbf{R}: \qquad x^{2} \geq 0$
x R :
x2 0
$x^{2} \geq 0\qquad \text{for all }x\in\mathbf{R}$
x2 0
for all x R
Mathematicians can be very fussy about which symbols are used: it would be conventional here to use the blackboard bold font, which is obtained using \mathbb from the package amssymb.4 The last example becomes
$x^{2} \geq 0\qquad \text{for all } x \in \mathbb{R}$ x2 0 for all x R
See Table 3.14 on 67 and Table 6.4 on 111 for more math fonts.
3.3
Building Blocks of a Mathematical Formula
In this section, we describe the most important commands used in mathematical typesetting. Most of the commands in this section will not require amsmath (if they do, it will be stated clearly), but load it anyway. Lowercase Greek letters are entered as \alpha, \beta, \gamma, . . . , uppercase letters are entered as \Gamma, \Delta, . . . 5 Take a look at Table 3.2 on page 63 for a list of Greek letters.
$\lambda,\xi,\pi,\theta, \mu,\Phi,\Omega,\Delta$ , , , , , , ,
Exponents and Subscripts can be specied using the ^ and the _ character. Most math mode commands act only on the next character, so if you want a command to aect several characters, you have to group them together using curly braces: {...}. Table 3.3 on page 64 lists a lot of other binary relations like and .
4 A amssymb is not a part of the AMS-L TEX bundle, but it is perhaps still a part of your A L TEX distribution. Check your distribution or go to CTAN:/fonts/amsfonts/latex/ to obtain it. 5 A There is no uppercase Alpha, Beta etc. dened in L TEX 2 because it looks the same as a normal roman A, B. . . Once the new math coding is done, things will change.
3.3 Building Blocks of a Mathematical Formula
$p^3_{ij} \qquad m_\text{Knuth} \\[5pt] a^x+y \neq a^{x+y}\qquad e^{x^2} \neq {e^x}^2$
53
p3 ij
mKnuth ex = ex 2
2
ax + y = ax+y
The square root is entered as \sqrt; the nth root is generated with A \sqrt[n]. The size of the root sign is determined automatically by L TEX. If just the sign is needed, use \surd. See other kinds of arrows like and on Table 3.6 on page 65.
$\sqrt{x} \Leftrightarrow x^{1/2} \quad \sqrt[3]{2} \quad \sqrt{x^{2} + \sqrt{y}} \quad \surd[x^2 + y^2]$ 3
x x1/2
2
x2 +
y
[x2 +y 2 ]
Usually you dont typeset an explicit dot sign to indicate the multiplication operation when handling symbols; however sometimes it is written to help the readers eyes in grouping a formula. You should use \cdot which typesets a single dot centered. \cdots is three centered dots while \ldots sets the dots on the baseline. Besides that, there are \vdots for vertical and \ddots for diagonal dots. You can nd another example in section 3.4.2.
$\Psi = v_1 \cdot v_2 \cdot \ldots \qquad n! = 1 \cdot 2 \cdots (n-1) \cdot n$
= v1 v2 . . .
n! = 1 2 (n 1) n
The commands \overline and \underline create horizontal lines directly over or under an expression:
$0.\overline{3} = \underline{\underline{1/3}}$ 0.3 = 1/3
The commands \overbrace and \underbrace create long horizontal braces over or under an expression:
6 9
$\underbrace{\overbrace{a+b+c}^6 \cdot \overbrace{d+e+f}^9} _\text{meaning of life} = 42$
a + b + c d + e + f = 42
meaning of life
To add mathematical accents such as small arrows or tilde signs to variables, the commands given in Table 3.1 on page 63 might be useful. Wide hats and tildes covering several characters are generated with \widetilde and \widehat. Notice the dierence between \hat and \widehat and the
54
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae placement of \bar for a variable with subscript. The apostrophe mark gives a prime:
$f(x) = x^2 \qquad f(x) = 2x \qquad f(x) = 2\\[5pt] \hat{XY} \quad \widehat{XY} \quad \bar{x_0} \quad \bar{x}_0$
f (x) = x2 XY XY
f (x) = 2x x0 x0
f (x) = 2
Vectors are often specied by adding small arrow symbols on top of a variable. This is done with the \vec command. The two commands \overrightarrow and \overleftarrow are useful to denote the vector from A to B:
$\vec{a} \qquad \vec{AB} \qquad \overrightarrow{AB}$ AB
a
AB
Names of log-like functions are often typeset in an upright font, and A not in italics as variables are, so L TEX supplies the following commands to typeset the most important function names: \arccos \cos \csc \exp \ker \limsup \arcsin \cosh \deg \gcd \lg \ln \arctan \cot \det \hom \lim \log \arg \coth \dim \inf \liminf \max \sinh \sup \tan \tanh \min \Pr \sec \sin
sin x =1 x
\[\lim_{x \rightarrow 0} \frac{\sin x}{x}=1\]
x0
lim
For functions missing from the list, use the \DeclareMathOperator command. There is even a starred version for functions with limits. This command works only in the preamble so the commented lines in the example below must be put into the preamble.
%\DeclareMathOperator{\argh}{argh} %\DeclareMathOperator*{\nut}{Nut} \[3\argh = 2\nut_{x=1}\]
3 argh = 2 Nut
x=1
For the modulo function, there are two commands: \bmod for the binary operator a mod b and \pmod for expressions such as x a (mod b):
$a\bmod b \\ x\equiv a \pmod{b}$ a mod b x a (mod b)
3.3 Building Blocks of a Mathematical Formula A built-up fraction is typeset with the \frac{...}{...} command. In in-line equations, the fraction is shrunk to t the line. This style is obtainable in display style with \tfrac. The reverse, i.e. display style fraction in text, is made with \dfrac. Often the slashed form 1/2 is preferable, because it looks better for small amounts of fraction material:
In display style: \[3/8 \qquad \frac{3}{8} \qquad \tfrac{3}{8} \] In display style: 3/8 3 8
3 8
55
In text style: $1\frac{1}{2}$~hours \qquad $1\dfrac{1}{2}$~hours
1 In text style: 1 2 hours
1
1 hours 2
Here the \partial command for partial derivatives is used:
\[\sqrt{\frac{x^2}{k+1}}\qquad x^\frac{2}{k+1}\qquad \frac{\partial^2f} {\partial x^2} \] x2 k+1 2f x2
x k+1
2
To typeset binomial coecients or similar structures, use the command \binom from amsmath:
Pascals rule is \begin{equation*} \binom{n}{k} =\binom{n-1}{k} + \binom{n-1}{k-1} \end{equation*} Pascals rule is n k = n1 n1 + k k1
For binary relations it may be useful to stack symbols over each other. \stackrel{#1}{#2} puts the symbol given in #1 in superscript-like size over #2 which is set in its usual position.
\begin{equation*} f_n(x) \stackrel{*}{\approx} 1 \end{equation*} fn (x) 1
The integral operator is generated with \int, the sum operator with \sum, and the product operator with \prod. The upper and lower limits are specied with ^ and _ like subscripts and superscripts:
\begin{equation*} \sum_{i=1}^n \qquad \int_0^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \qquad \prod_\epsilon \end{equation*}
n 0
2
i=1
56
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae To get more control over the placement of indices in complex expressions, amsmath provides the \substack command:
\begin{equation*} \sum^n_{\substack{0<i<n \\ j\subseteq i}} P(i,j) = Q(i,j) \end{equation*}
n
P (i, j) = Q(i, j)
0<i<n ji
A L TEX provides all sorts of symbols for braces and other delimiters (e.g. [ ). Round and square braces can be entered with the corresponding keys and curly braces with \{, but all other delimiters are generated with special commands (e.g. \updownarrow).
\begin{equation*} {a,b,c} \neq \{a,b,c\} \end{equation*}
a, b, c = {a, b, c}
If you put \left in front of an opening delimiter and \right in front A of a closing delimiter, L TEX will automatically determine the correct size of the delimiter. Note that you must close every \left with a corresponding \right. If you dont want anything on the right, use the invisible \right.:
\begin{equation*} 1 + \left(\frac{1}{1-x^{2}} \right)^3 \qquad \left. \ddagger \frac{~}{~}\right) \end{equation*}
1+
1 1 x2
3
In some cases it is necessary to specify the correct size of a mathematical delimiter by hand, which can be done using the commands \big, \Big, \bigg and \Bigg as prexes to most delimiter commands:
$\Big((x+1)(x-1)\Big)^{2}$\\ $\big( \Big( \bigg( \Bigg( \quad \big\} \Big\} \bigg\} \Bigg\} \quad \big\| \Big\| \bigg\| \Bigg\| \quad \big\Downarrow \Big\Downarrow \bigg\Downarrow \Bigg\Downarrow$
2
(x + 1)(x 1)
For a list of all delimiters available, see Table 3.8 on page 66.
3.4 Vertically Aligned Material
57
3.4
3.4.1
Vertically Aligned Material
Multiple Equations
For formulae running over several lines or for equation systems, you can use the environments align and align* instead of equation and equation*.6 With align each line gets an equation number. The align* does not number anything. The align environments center the single equation around the & sign. The \\ command breaks the lines. If you only want to enumerate some of equations, use \nonumber to remove the number. It has to be placed before \\:
\begin{align} f(x) &= (a+b)(a-b) \label{1}\\ &= a^2-ab+ba-b^2 \\ &= a^2+b^2 \tag{wrong} \end{align} This is a reference to \eqref{1}.
f (x) = (a + b)(a b) = a ab + ba b =a +b
2 2 2 2
(3.4) (3.5) (wrong)
This is a reference to (3.4).
Long equations will not be automatically divided into neat bits. The author has to specify where to break them and correct the indent:
\begin{align} f(x) &= 3x^5 + x^4 + 2x^3 \nonumber \\ &\qquad + 9x^2 + 12x + 23 \\ &= g(x) - h(x) \end{align}
f (x) = 3x5 + x4 + 2x3 + 9x2 + 12x + 23 = g(x) h(x) (3.6) (3.7)
The amsmath package provides a couple of other useful environments: flalign, gather, multline and split. See the documentation for the package for a wide range of commands, environments and more.
3.4.2
Arrays and Matrices
To typeset arrays, use the array environment. It works somewhat similar to the tabular environment. The \\ command is used to break the lines:
The align environment is from amsmath. A similar environment without amsmath A from L TEX is eqnarray, but it is generally not advised to use that because of spacing and label inconsistencies.
6
58
\begin{equation*} \mathbf{X} = \left( \begin{array}{ccc} x_1 & x_2 & \ldots \\ x_3 & x_4 & \ldots \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots \end{array} \right) \end{equation*}
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
x1 x3 X= . . .
x2 x4 . . .
... ... .. .
The array environment can also be used to typeset piecewise functions by using a . as an invisible \right delimiter:7
\begin{equation*} |x| = \left\{ \begin{array}{rl} -x & \text{if } x < 0\\ 0 & \text{if } x = 0\\ x & \text{if } x > 0 \end{array} \right. \end{equation*}
x if x < 0 0 if x = 0 |x| = x if x > 0
array can be used to typeset matrices as well, but amsmath provides a better solution using the dierent environments. matrix There are six versions with dierent delimiters: matrix (none), pmatrix (, bmatrix [, Bmatrix {, vmatrix | and Vmatrix . You dont have to specify the number of columns as with array. The maximum number is 10, but it is customisable (though it is not very often you need 10 columns!):
\begin{equation*} \begin{matrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3&4 \end{matrix} \qquad \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 4 & 5 & 6 \\ 7&8&9 \end{bmatrix} \end{equation*}
1 3
2 4
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
3.5
Spacing in Math Mode
A If the spacing within formulae chosen by L TEX is not satisfactory, it can be 3 adjusted by inserting special spacing commands: \, for 18 quad ( ), \: for
If you want to typeset a lot of constructions like these, the cases environment from amsmath simplies the syntax, so it is worth a look.
7
3.5 Spacing in Math Mode
5 quad ( ) and \; for 18 quad ( ). The escaped space character \ generates a medium sized space comparable to the interword spacing and \quad ( ) and \qquad ( ) produce large spaces. The size of a \quad corresponds to the width of the character M of the current font. \! produces a negative 3 space of 18 quad ( ). Note that d in the dierential is conventionally set in roman: 4 18
59
\begin{equation*} \int_1^2 \ln x \mathrm{d}x \qquad \int_1^2 \ln x \,\mathrm{d}x \end{equation*}
2
2
ln xdx
1 1
ln x dx
In the next example, we dene a new command \ud which produces d (notice the spacing before the d), so we dont have to write it every time. The \newcommand is placed in the preamble.
\newcommand{\ud}{\,\mathrm{d}}
b
\begin{equation*} \int_a^b f(x)\ud x \end{equation*}
f (x) dx
a
If you want to typeset multiple integrals, youll discover that the spacing between the integrals is too wide. You can correct it using \!, but amsmath provides an easier way for ne-tuning the spacing, namely the \iint, \iiint, \iiiint, and \idotsint commands.
\newcommand{\ud}{\,\mathrm{d}} \[ \int\int f(x)g(y) \ud x \ud y \] \[ \int\!\!\!\int f(x)g(y) \ud x \ud y \] \[ \iint f(x)g(y) \ud x \ud y \]
f (x)g(y) dx dy f (x)g(y) dx dy f (x)g(y) dx dy
A See the electronic document testmath.tex (distributed with AMS-L TEX) A X Companion [3] for further details. or Chapter 8 of The L TE
3.5.1
Phantoms
A When vertically aligning text using ^ and _ L TEX is sometimes just a little too helpful. Using the \phantom command you can reserve space for characters that do not show up in the nal output. The easiest way to understand this is to look at an example:
60
\begin{equation*} {}^{14}_{6}\text{C} \qquad \text{versus} \qquad {}^{14}_{\phantom{1}6}\text{C} \end{equation*}
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
14 6C
versus
14 6C
If you want to typeset a lot of isotopes as in the example, the mhchem package is very useful for typesetting isotopes and chemical formulae too.
3.6
Fiddling with the Math Fonts
Dierent math fonts are listed on Table 3.14 on page 67.
$\Re \qquad \mathcal{R} \qquad \mathfrak{R} \qquad \mathbb{R} \qquad $
R
R
R
The last two require amssymb or amsfonts. A Sometimes you need to tell L TEX the correct font size. In math mode, this is set with the following four commands: \displaystyle (123), \textstyle (123), \scriptstyle (123) and \scriptscriptstyle (123).
A LT
If is placed in a fraction, itll be typeset in text style unless you tell EX otherwise:
\begin{equation*} R = \frac{\displaystyle{ \sum_{i=1}^n (x_i-\bar{x}) (y_i- \bar{y})}} {\displaystyle{\left[ \sum_{i=1}^n(x_i-\bar{x})^2 \sum_{i=1}^n(y_i-\bar{y})^2 \right]^{1/2}}} \end{equation*}
n
(xi x)(yi y ) R=
i=1 n n 1/2 2 i=1 2
(xi x)
i=1
(yi y )
Changing styles generally aects the way big operators and limits are displayed.
3.6.1
Bold Symbols
A It is quite dicult to get bold symbols in L TEX; this is probably intentional as amateur typesetters tend to overuse them. The font change command \mathbf gives bold letters, but these are roman (upright) whereas mathematical symbols are normally italic, and furthermore it doesnt work on
3.7 Theorems, Lemmas, . . . lower case Greek letters. There is a \boldmath command, but this can only be used outside math mode. It works for symbols too, though:
$\mu, M \qquad \mathbf{\mu}, \mathbf{M}$ \qquad \boldmath{$\mu, M$} , M , M , M
61
The package amsbsy (included by amsmath) as well as the bm from the tools bundle make this much easier as they include a \boldsymbol command:
$\mu, M \qquad \boldsymbol{\mu}, \boldsymbol{M}$ , M , M
3.7
Theorems, Lemmas, . . .
When writing mathematical documents, you probably need a way to typeset Lemmas, Denitions, Axioms and similar structures.
\newtheorem{name}[counter]{text}[section]
The name argument is a short keyword used to identify the theorem. With the text argument you dene the actual name of the theorem, which will be printed in the nal document. The arguments in square brackets are optional. They are both used to specify the numbering used on the theorem. Use the counter argument to specify the name of a previously declared theorem. The new theorem will then be numbered in the same sequence. The section argument allows you to specify the sectional unit within which the theorem should get its numbers. After executing the \newtheorem command in the preamble of your document, you can use the following command within the document. \begin{name}[text] This is my interesting theorem \end{name}
A The amsthm package (part of AMS-L TEX) provides the \theoremstyle{style} command which lets you dene what the theorem is all about by picking from three predened styles: definition (fat title, roman body), plain (fat title, italic body) or remark (italic title, roman body). This should be enough theory. The following examples should remove any remaining doubt, and make it clear that the \newtheorem environment is way too complex to understand. First dene the theorems:
62
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae \theoremstyle{definition} \newtheorem{law}{Law} \theoremstyle{plain} \newtheorem{jury}[law]{Jury} \theoremstyle{remark} \newtheorem*{marg}{Margaret}
\begin{law} \label{law:box} Dont hide in the witness box \end{law} \begin{jury}[The Twelve] It could be you! So beware and see law~\ref{law:box}.\end{jury} \begin{marg}No, No, No\end{marg}
Law 1. Dont hide in the witness box Jury 2 (The Twelve). It could be you! So beware and see law 1. Margaret. No, No, No
The Jury theorem uses the same counter as the Law theorem, so it gets a number that is in sequence with the other Laws. The argument in square brackets is used to specify a title or something similar for the theorem.
\newtheorem{mur}{Murphy}[section] \begin{mur} If there are two or more ways to do something, and one of those ways can result in a catastrophe, then someone will do it.\end{mur} Murphy 3.7.1. If there are two or more ways to do something, and one of those ways can result in a catastrophe, then someone will do it.
The Murphy theorem gets a number that is linked to the number of the current section. You could also use another unit, for example chapter or subsection. The amsthm package also provides the proof environment.
\begin{proof} Trivial, use \[E=mc^2\] \end{proof} Proof. Trivial, use E = mc2
With the command \qedhere you can move the end of proof symbol around for situations where it would end up alone on a line.
\begin{proof} Trivial, use \[E=mc^2 \qedhere\] \end{proof} Proof. Trivial, use E = mc2
If you want to customize your theorems down to the last dot, the ntheorem package oers a plethora of options.
3.8 List of Mathematical Symbols
63
3.8
List of Mathematical Symbols
The following tables demonstrate all the symbols normally accessible from math mode. To use the symbols listed in Tables 3.123.8,8 the package amssymb must be loaded in the preamble of the document and the AMS math fonts must be installed on the system. If the AMS package and fonts are not installed on your system, have a look at CTAN:macros/latex/required/amslatex. An even more comprehensive list of symbols can be found at CTAN:info/ symbols/comprehensive. Table 3.1: Math Mode Accents. a a ` a a a \hat{a} \grave{a} \bar{a} \acute{a} \mathring{a} a a a a \check{a} \dot{a} \vec{a} \breve{a} a a AAA AAA \tilde{a} \ddot{a} \widehat{AAA} \widetilde{AAA}
Table 3.2: Greek Letters. There is no uppercase of some of the letters like \Alpha, \Beta and so on, because they look the same as normal roman letters: A, B. . . \alpha \beta \gamma \delta \epsilon \varepsilon \zeta \eta \Gamma \Delta \Theta \theta \vartheta \iota \kappa \lambda \mu \nu \xi \Lambda \Xi \Pi o o \pi \varpi \rho \varrho \sigma \varsigma \tau \Sigma \Upsilon \Phi \upsilon \phi \varphi \chi \psi \omega
\Psi \Omega
These tables were derived from symbols.tex by David Carlisle and subsequently changed extensively as suggested by Josef Tkadlec.
8
64
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Table 3.3: Binary Relations. You can negate the following symbols by prexing them with a \not command. < < \leq or \le \ll \prec \preceq \subset \subseteq \sqsubset a \sqsubseteq \in \vdash \mid \smile :
a
>
| :
/
> \geq or \ge \gg \succ \succeq \supset \supseteq \sqsupset a \sqsupseteq \ni , \owns \dashv \parallel \frown \notin
= . = = I |= =
= \equiv \doteq \sim \simeq \approx \cong \Join a \bowtie \propto \models \perp \asymp \neq or \ne
Use the latexsym package to access this symbol
Table 3.4: Binary Operators. + + \pm \cdot \times \cup \sqcup \vee , \lor \oplus \odot \otimes \bigtriangleup \lhd a \unlhd a \ \mp \div \setminus \cap \sqcap \wedge , \land \ominus \oslash \bigcirc \bigtriangledown \rhd a \unrhd a
\triangleleft \triangleright \star \ast \circ \bullet \diamond \uplus \amalg \dagger \ddagger \wr
3.8 List of Mathematical Symbols
65
Table 3.5: BIG Operators. \sum \prod \coprod \int \bigoplus \bigcup \bigcap \bigsqcup \oint \bigotimes \bigvee \bigwedge \biguplus \bigodot
Table 3.6: Arrows. \leftarrow or \gets \rightarrow or \to \leftrightarrow \Leftarrow \Rightarrow \Leftrightarrow \mapsto \hookleftarrow \leftharpoonup \leftharpoondown \rightleftharpoons \uparrow \updownarrow \Downarrow \nearrow \swarrow \leadsto a
a
= =
\longleftarrow \longrightarrow \longleftrightarrow \Longleftarrow \Longrightarrow \Longleftrightarrow \longmapsto \hookrightarrow \rightharpoonup \rightharpoondown \iff (bigger spaces) \downarrow \Uparrow \Updownarrow \searrow \nwarrow
Y
Use the latexsym package to access this symbol
Table 3.7: Arrows as Accents. AB AB AB \overrightarrow{AB} \overleftarrow{AB} \overleftrightarrow{AB} AB AB AB \underrightarrow{AB} \underleftarrow{AB} \underleftrightarrow{AB}
66
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Table 3.8: Delimiters. ( [ { | / ( [ or \lbrack \{ or \lbrace \langle | or \vert / \lfloor \rceil ) ] } ) ] or \rbrack \} or \rbrace \rangle \| or \Vert \backslash \rfloor \lceil \uparrow \downarrow \updownarrow \Uparrow \Downarrow \Updownarrow
\
Table 3.9: Large Delimiters.
\lgroup \arrowvert \rmoustache
\rgroup \Arrowvert
\lmoustache \bracevert
Table 3.10: Miscellaneous Symbols. ... \dots \hbar \Re \forall \nabla \bot \diamondsuit \neg or \lnot
a
\cdots \imath \Im \exists \prime \triangle \top \heartsuit \flat
. . . P
\vdots \jmath \aleph \mho a \emptyset \Box a \angle \clubsuit \natural
..
.
Q
\ddots \ell \wp \partial \infty \Diamond a \surd \spadesuit \sharp
Use the latexsym package to access this symbol
Table 3.11: Non-Mathematical Symbols. These symbols can also be used in text mode. \dag \ddag \S \P \copyright \pounds % \textregistered \%
3.8 List of Mathematical Symbols
67
Table 3.12: AMS Delimiters. \ulcorner \lvert \urcorner \rvert \llcorner \lVert \lrcorner \rVert
|
|
Table 3.13: AMS Greek and Hebrew. \digamma \varkappa \beth \gimel \daleth
Table 3.14: Math Alphabets. See Table 6.4 on 111 for other math fonts. Example ABCDEabcde1234 ABCDEabcde1234 ABCDEabcde ABCDE A BC DE ABCDEabcde1234 ABCDE Command \mathrm{ABCDE abcde 1234} \mathit{ABCDE abcde 1234} \mathnormal{ABCDE abcde 1234} \mathcal{ABCDE abcde 1234} \mathscr{ABCDE abcde 1234} \mathfrak{ABCDE abcde 1234} \mathbb{ABCDE abcde 1234} Required package
mathrsfs amsfonts or amssymb amsfonts or amssymb
Table 3.15: AMS Binary Operators. \dotplus \ltimes \doublecup \veebar \boxplus \boxtimes \intercal \curlyvee \centerdot \rtimes \doublecap \barwedge \boxminus \boxdot \circledast \curlywedge \divideontimes \smallsetminus \doublebarwedge \circleddash \circledcirc \rightthreetimes \leftthreetimes
68
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Table 3.16: AMS Binary Relations. \lessdot \leqslant \eqslantless \leqq \lll or \llless \lesssim \lessapprox \lessgtr \lesseqgtr \lesseqqgtr \preccurlyeq \curlyeqprec \precsim \precapprox \subseteqq \shortparallel \blacktriangleleft \vartriangleright \blacktriangleright \trianglerighteq \vartriangleleft \trianglelefteq \gtrdot \geqslant \eqslantgtr \geqq \ggg \gtrsim \gtrapprox \gtrless \gtreqless \gtreqqless \succcurlyeq \curlyeqsucc \succsim \succapprox \supseteqq \Supset \sqsupset \because \Subset \smallfrown \shortmid \therefore \doteqdot \risingdotseq \fallingdotseq \eqcirc \circeq \triangleq \bumpeq \Bumpeq \thicksim \thickapprox \approxeq \backsim \backsimeq \vDash \Vdash \Vvdash \backepsilon \varpropto \between \pitchfork \smallsmile \sqsubset
3.8 List of Mathematical Symbols
69
Table 3.17: AMS Arrows. \dashleftarrow \leftleftarrows \leftrightarrows \Lleftarrow \twoheadleftarrow \leftarrowtail \leftrightharpoons \Lsh \looparrowleft \curvearrowleft \circlearrowleft \multimap \downdownarrows \upharpoonright \rightsquigarrow \dashrightarrow \rightrightarrows \rightleftarrows \Rrightarrow \twoheadrightarrow \rightarrowtail \rightleftharpoons \Rsh \looparrowright \curvearrowright \circlearrowright \upuparrows \upharpoonleft \downharpoonright \leftrightsquigarrow
70
Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Table 3.18: AMS Negated Binary Relations and Arrows. \nless \lneq \nleq \nleqslant \lneqq \lvertneqq \nleqq \lnsim \lnapprox \nprec \npreceq \precneqq \precnsim \precnapprox \subsetneq \varsubsetneq \nsubseteq \subsetneqq \nleftarrow \nLeftarrow \ngtr \gneq \ngeq \ngeqslant \gneqq \gvertneqq \ngeqq \gnsim \gnapprox \nsucc \nsucceq \succneqq \succnsim \succnapprox \supsetneq \varsupsetneq \nsupseteq \supsetneqq \nrightarrow \nRightarrow \varsubsetneqq \varsupsetneqq \nsubseteqq \nsupseteqq \nmid \nparallel \nshortmid \nshortparallel \nsim \ncong \nvdash \nvDash \nVdash \nVDash \ntriangleleft \ntriangleright \ntrianglelefteq \ntrianglerighteq \nleftrightarrow \nLeftrightarrow
Table 3.19: AMS Miscellaneous. \hbar \square \vartriangle \triangledown \lozenge \angle \diagup \nexists \eth \hslash \blacksquare \blacktriangle \blacktriangledown \blacklozenge \measuredangle \diagdown \Finv \sphericalangle k \Bbbk \circledS \complement \Game \bigstar \backprime \varnothing \mho
Chapter 4
Specialities
A When putting together a large document, LTEX will help you with some special features like index generation, bibliography management, and other things. A much more complete description of specialities and enhancements possible with A A A LTEX can be found in the L TEX Manual [1] and The L TEX Companion [3].
4.1
Including Encapsulated PostScript
A L TEX provides the basic facilities to work with oating bodies, such as images or graphics, with the figure and table environments. A There are several ways to generate the actual graphics with basic L TEX A X extension package, a few of them are described in chapter 5. or a L TE A A Please refer to The L TEX Companion [3] and the L TEX Manual [1] for more information on that subject. A much easier way to get graphics into a document is to generate them with a specialised software package1 and then include the nished graphics A into the document. Here again, L TEX packages oer many ways to do this, but this introduction will only discuss the use of Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) graphics, because it is quite easy to do and widely used. In order to use pictures in the EPS format, you must have a PostScript printer2 available for output. A good set of commands for inclusion of graphics is provided in the graphicx package by D. P. Carlisle. It is part of a whole family of packages called the graphics bundle.3 Assuming you are working on a system with a PostScript printer available for output and with the graphicx package installed, you can use the following step by step guide to include a picture into your document:
Such as XFig, Gnuplot, Gimp, Xara X . . . Another possibility to output PostScript is the GhostScript program available from support/ghostscript. Windows and OS/2 users might want to look for GSview. 3 macros/latex/required/graphics
2
1
72
Specialities 1. Export the picture from your graphics program in EPS format.4 2. Load the graphicx package in the preamble of the input le with
\usepackage[driver]{graphicx}
where driver is the name of your dvi to postscript converter program. The most widely used program is called dvips. The name of the driver is required, because there is no standard on how graphics are included in TEX. Knowing the name of the driver, the graphicx package can choose the correct method to insert information about the graphics into the .dvi le, so that the printer understands it and can correctly include the .eps le. 3. Use the command
\includegraphics[key=value, . . . ]{le}
to include le into your document. The optional parameter accepts a comma separated list of keys and associated values. The keys can be used to alter the width, height and rotation of the included graphic. Table 4.1 lists the most important keys.
Table 4.1: Key Names for graphicx Package. width height angle scale scale graphic to the specied width scale graphic to the specied height rotate graphic counterclockwise scale graphic
4 If your software can not export into EPS format, you can try to install a PostScript printer driver (such as an Apple LaserWriter, for example) and then print to a le with this driver. With some luck this le will be in EPS format. Note that an EPS must not contain more than one page. Some printer drivers can be explicitly congured to produce EPS format.
4.2 Bibliography The following example code may help to clarify things: \begin{figure} \centering \includegraphics[angle=90, width=0.5\textwidth]{test} \caption{This is a test.} \end{figure} It includes the graphic stored in the le test.eps. The graphic is rst rotated by an angle of 90 degrees and then scaled to the nal width of 0.5 times the width of a standard paragraph. The aspect ratio is 1.0, because no special height is specied. The width and height parameters can also be specied in absolute dimensions. Refer to Table 6.5 on page 115 for more information. If you want to know more about this topic, make sure to read [9] and [13].
73
4.2
Bibliography
You can produce a bibliography with the thebibliography environment. Each entry starts with
\bibitem[label]{marker}
The marker is then used to cite the book, article or paper within the document.
\cite{marker}
If you do not use the label option, the entries will get enumerated automatically. The parameter after the \begin{thebibliography} command denes how much space to reserve for the number of labels. In the examA ple below, {99} tells L TEX to expect that none of the bibliography item numbers will be wider than the number 99.
Partl [1] has proposed that . . .
Partl~\cite{pa} has proposed that \ldots \begin{thebibliography}{99} \bibitem{pa} H.~Partl: \emph{German \TeX}, TUGboat Volume~9, Issue~1 (1988) \end{thebibliography}
Bibliography
[1] H. Partl: German TEX, TUGboat Volume 9, Issue 1 (1988)
74
Specialities For larger projects, you might want to check out the BibTEX program. BibTEX is included with most TEX distributions. It allows you to maintain a bibliographic database and then extract the references relevant to things you cited in your paper. The visual presentation of BibTEX generated bibliographies is based on a style sheets concept that allows you to create bibliographies following a wide range of established designs.
4.3 Indexing
75
Table 4.2: Index Key Syntax Examples. Example \index{hello} \index{hello!Peter} \index{Sam@\textsl{Sam}} \index{Lin@\textbf{Lin}} \index{Jenny|textbf} \index{Joe|textit} \index{ecole@\ecole} Index Entry hello, 1 Peter, 3 Sam, 2 Lin, 7 Jenny, 3 Joe, 5 cole, 4 Comment Plain entry Subentry under hello Formatted entry Same as above Formatted page number Same as above Handling of accents
4.3
Indexing
A A very useful feature of many books is their index. With L TEX and the 5 an index can be generated quite easily. This support program makeindex, introduction will only explain the basic index generation commands. For a A more in-depth view, please refer to The L TEX Companion [3]. A X, the makeidx package must be To enable the indexing feature of L TE loaded in the preamble with:
\usepackage{makeidx}
and the special indexing commands must be enabled by putting the
\makeindex
command into the input le preamble. The content of the index is specied with
\index{key}
commands, where key is the index entry. You enter the index commands at the points in the text that you want the nal index entries to point to. Table 4.2 explains the syntax of the key argument with several examples. A When the input le is processed with L TEX, each \index command writes an appropriate index entry, together with the current page number, A to a special le. The le has the same name as the L TEX input le, but a dierent extension (.idx). This .idx le can then be processed with the
On systems not necessarily supporting lenames longer than 8 characters, the program may be called makeidx.
5
76 makeindex program.
makeindex lename
Specialities
The makeindex program generates a sorted index with the same base A le name, but this time with the extension .ind. If now the L TEX input le is processed again, this sorted index gets included into the document at A the point where L TEX nds
\printindex
A The showidx package that comes with L TEX 2 prints out all index entries in the left margin of the text. This is quite useful for proofreading a document and verifying the index. Note that the \index command can aect your layout if not used carefully.
My Word \index{Word}. As opposed to Word\index{Word}. Note the position of the full stop.
My Word . As opposed to Word. Note the position of the full stop.
4.4
Fancy Headers
The fancyhdr package,6 written by Piet van Oostrum, provides a few simple commands that allow you to customize the header and footer lines of your document. If you look at the top of this page, you can see a possible application of this package. The tricky problem when customising headers and footers is to get things A like running section and chapter names in there. L TEX accomplishes this with a two-stage approach. In the header and footer denition, you use the commands \rightmark and \leftmark to represent the current section and chapter heading, respectively. The values of these two commands are overwritten whenever a chapter or section command is processed. For ultimate exibility, the \chapter command and its friends do not redene \rightmark and \leftmark themselves. They call yet another command (\chaptermark, \sectionmark, or \subsectionmark) that is responsible for redening \rightmark and \leftmark. If you want to change the look of the chapter name in the header line, you need only renew the \chaptermark command.
6
Available from macros/latex/contrib/supported/fancyhdr.
4.4 Fancy Headers
77
\documentclass{book} \usepackage{fancyhdr} \pagestyle{fancy} % with this we ensure that the chapter and section % headings are in lowercase. \renewcommand{\chaptermark}[1]{% \markboth{#1}{}} \renewcommand{\sectionmark}[1]{% \markright{\thesection\ #1}} \fancyhf{} % delete current header and footer \fancyhead[LE,RO]{\bfseries\thepage} \fancyhead[LO]{\bfseries\rightmark} \fancyhead[RE]{\bfseries\leftmark} \renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0.5pt} \renewcommand{\footrulewidth}{0pt} \addtolength{\headheight}{0.5pt} % space for the rule \fancypagestyle{plain}{% \fancyhead{} % get rid of headers on plain pages \renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt} % and the line }
Figure 4.1: Example fancyhdr Setup.
78
Specialities Figure 4.1 shows a possible setup for the fancyhdr package that makes the headers look about the same as they look in this booklet. In any case, I suggest you fetch the documentation for the package at the address mentioned in the footnote.
4.5
The Verbatim Package
Earlier in this book, you got to know the verbatim environment. In this section, you are going to learn about the verbatim package. The verbatim package is basically a re-implementation of the verbatim environment that works around some of the limitations of the original verbatim environment. This by itself is not spectacular, but the implementation of the verbatim package added new functionality, which is why I am mentioning the package here. The verbatim package provides the
\verbatiminput{lename}
command, which allows you to include raw ASCII text into your document as if it were inside a verbatim environment. As the verbatim package is part of the tools bundle, you should nd it pre-installed on most systems. If you want to know more about this package, make sure to read [10].
4.6
Installing Extra Packages
A Most L TEX installations come with a large set of pre-installed style packages, but many more are available on the net. The main place to look for style packages on the Internet is CTAN (http://www.ctan.org/). Packages such as geometry, hyphenat, and many others are typically made up of two les: a le with the extension .ins and another with the extension .dtx. There will often be a readme.txt with a brief description of the package. You should of course read this le rst. In any event, once you have copied the package les onto your machine, you still have to process them in a way that (a) tells your TEX distribution about the new style package and (b) gives you the documentation. Heres how you do the rst part: A 1. Run L TEX on the .ins le. This will extract a .sty le.
2. Move the .sty le to a place where your distribution can nd it. Usually this is in your .../localtexmf /tex/latex subdirectory (Windows or OS/2 users should feel free to change the direction of the slashes).
A 4.7 Working with pdf L TEX
79
3. Refresh your distributions le-name database. The command depends A on the L TEXdistribution you use: teTeX, fpTeX texhash; web2c maktexlsr; MikTeX initexmf -update-fndb or use the GUI. Now you can extract the documentation from the .dtx le:
A 1. Run L TEX on the .dtx le. This will generate a .dvi le. Note A that you may have to run L TEX several times before it gets the crossreferences right. A 2. Check to see if L TEX has produced a .idx le among the various les you now have. If you do not see this le, then you may proceed to step 5.
3. In order to generate the index, type the following: makeindex -s gind.ist name (where name stands for the main-le name without any extension).
A 4. Run L TEX on the .dtx le once again.
5. Last but not least, make a .ps or .pdf le to increase your reading pleasure. Sometimes you will see that a .glo (glossary) le has been produced. Run the following command between step 4 and 5: makeindex -s gglo.ist -o name.gls name.glo A Be sure to run L TEX on the .dtx one last time before moving on to step 5.
4.7
A Working with pdf LTEX
By Daniel Flipo <[e-mail]>
PDF is a hypertext document format. Much like in a web page, some words in the document are marked as hyperlinks. They link to other places in the document or even to other documents. If you click on such a hyperlink you A get transported to the destination of the link. In the context of L TEX, this means that all occurrences of \ref and \pageref become hyperlinks. Additionally, the table of contents, the index and all the other similar structures become collections of hyperlinks. Most web pages you nd today are written in HTML (HyperText Markup Language). This format has two signicant disadvantages when writing scientic documents: 1. Including mathematical formulae into HTML documents is not generally supported. While there is a standard for it, most browsers used today do not support it, or lack the required fonts.
80
Specialities 2. Printing HTML documents is possible, but the results vary widely between platforms and browsers. The results are miles removed from A the quality we have come to expect in the L TEX world.
A There have been many attempts to create translators from L TEX to HTML. Some were even quite successful in the sense that they are able A to produce legible web pages from a standard L TEX input le. But all of them cut corners left and right to get the job done. As soon as you start A using more complex L TEX features and external packages things tend to fall apart. Authors wishing to preserve the unique typographic quality of their documents even when publishing on the web turn to PDF (Portable Document Format), which preserves the layout of the document and permits hypertext navigation. Most modern browsers come with plugins that allow the direct display of PDF documents. Even though there are DVI and PS viewers for almost every platform, you will nd that Acrobat Reader and Xpdf for viewing PDF documents are more widely deployed. So providing PDF versions of your documents will make them much more accessible to your potential readers.
4.7.1
PDF Documents for the Web
A The creation of a PDF le from L TEX source is very simple, thanks to the pdfTEX program developed by Hn Th Thnh. pdfTEX produces PDF A output where normal TEX produces DVI. There is also a pdfL TEX, which A produces PDF output from L TEX sources. A X are installed automatically by most modern Both pdfTEX and pdfL TE TEX distributions, such as teTEX, fpTEX, MikTEX, TEXLive and CMacTEX. To produce a PDF instead of DVI, it is sucient to replace the comA mand latex file.tex by pdflatex file.tex. On systems where L TEX is not called from the command line, you may nd a special button in the TEXControlCenter. A In L TEX you can dene the paper size with an optional documentclass A argument such as a4paper or letterpaper. This works in pdfL TEX too, but on top of this pdfTEX also needs to know the physical size of the paper to determine the physical size of the pages in the pdf le. If you use the hyperref package (see page 83), the papersize will be adjusted automatically. Otherwise you have to do this manually by putting the following lines into the preamble of the document:
\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth \pdfpageheight=\paperheight The following section will go into more detail regarding the dierences A A between normal L TEX and pdfL TEX. The main dierences concern three areas: the fonts to use, the format of images to include, and the manual conguration of hyperlinks.
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4.7.2
The Fonts
A pdfL TEX can deal with all sorts of fonts (PK bitmaps, TrueType, PostScript A type 1. . . ) but the normal L TEX font format, the bitmap PK fonts produce very ugly results when the document is displayed with Acrobat Reader. It is best to use PostScript Type 1 fonts exclusively to produce documents that display well. Modern TeX installations will be setup so that this happens automatically. Best is to try. If it works for you, just skip this whole section. The PostScript Type 1 implementation of the Computer Modern and AMSFonts was produced by Blue Sky Research and Y&Y, Inc., who then transferred copyright to the American Mathematical Society. The fonts were made publicly available in early 1997 and currently come with most of TEX distributions. A However, if you are using L TEX to create documents in languages other than English, you might want to use EC, LH, or CB fonts (see the discussion about OT1 fonts on the page 26). Vladimir Volovich has created the cm-super font bundle which covers the entire EC/TC, EC Concrete, EC Bright and LH font sets. It is available from CTAN:/fonts/ps-type1/cm-super and is included with TEXLive7 and MikTEX. Similar type 1 CB Greek fonts created by Apostolos Syropoulos are available at CTAN:/tex-archive/fonts/greek/cb. Unfortunately, both of these font sets are not of the same typographic quality as the Type1 CM fonts by Blue Sky/Y&Y. They were automatically hinted, and the document might look not as neat on the screen as the ones using Blue Sky/Y&Y type 1 CM fonts, on high resolution output devices they produce results identical to the original bitmap EC/LH/CB fonts. If you are creating document in one of Latin-based languages, you have several other options.
You might want to use aeguill package, aka Almost European Computer Modern with Guillemets. Just put the line \usepackage{aeguill} into the preamble of your document, to enable AE virtual fonts instead of EC fonts. Alternatively, you can use mltex package, but this only works when your pdfTEX has been compiled with the mltex option. The AE virtual fontset, like the MlTEX system, makes TEX believe it has a full 256 character fontset at its disposal by creating most of the missing letters from characters of the CM font and rearranging them in the EC order, this allows to use the excellent type 1 format CM fonts available on most systems. As the font is now in T1 encoding, hyphenation will work well in Latin-based European languages. The only disadvantage of this approach is that the articial AE characters do not work with Acrobat Readers Find function, so you cannot search for words with accented characters in your nal PDF le.
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Specialities For the Russian language a similar solution is to use C1 virtual fonts available at ftp://ftp.vsu.ru/pub/tex/font-packs/c1fonts. These fonts combine the standard CM type 1 fonts from Bluesky collection and CMCYR type 1 fonts from Paradissa and BaKoMa collection, all available on CTAN. Because Paradissa fonts contain only Russian letters, C1 fonts are missing other Cyrillic glyphs. Another solution is to switch to other PostScript type 1 fonts. Actually, some of them are even included with every copy of Acrobat Reader. Because these fonts have dierent character sizes, the text layout on your pages will change. Generally these other fonts will use more space than the CM fonts, which are very space-ecient. Also, the overall visual coherence of your document will suer because Times, Helvetica and Courier (the primary candidates for such a replacement job) have not been designed to work in harmony in a single document. Two ready-made font sets are available for this purpose: pxfonts, which is based on Palatino as its main text body font, and the txfonts package, which is based on Times. To use them it is sucient to put the following lines into the preamble of your document: \usepackage[T1]{fontenc} \usepackage{pxfonts} Note: you may nd lines like Warning: pdftex (file eurmo10): Font eur... not found in the .log le after compiling your input le. They mean that some font used in the document has not been found. You really have to x these problems, as the resulting PDF document may not display the pages with the missing characters at all. As you can see this whole font business, especially the lack of a good EC fontset equivalent in quality to the CM font in type 1 format, has been occupying many peoples minds. Recently a new set of high quality outline fonts called Latin Modern (LM) has become available. It puts an end to the misery. If you have a recent TEX installation, chances are that you already have a copy of them installed all you need todo is to add \usepackage{lmodern} \usepackage[T1]{fontenc} \usepackage{textcomp} to the preamble of your document and you are all set for creating excellent pdf output with full support for the full Latin character set.
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4.7.3
Using Graphics
Including graphics into a document works best with the graphicx package (see page 71). By using the special driver option pdftex the package will A work with pdfL TEX as well: \usepackage[pdftex]{color,graphicx} In the sample above I have included the color option, as using color in documents displayed on the web comes quite naturally. So much for the good news. The bad news is that graphics in EncapsuA lated PostScript format do not work with PdfL TEX. If you dont dene a le extension in the \includegraphics command, graphicx will go looking for a suitable le on its own, depending on the setting of the driver option. For pdftex this is formats .png, .pdf, .jpg and .mps ( METAPOST)but not .eps. The simple way out of this problem is to just convert your EPS les into PDF format using the epstopdf utility found on many systems. For vector graphics (drawings) this is a great solution. For bitmaps (photos, scans) this is not ideal, because the PDF format natively supports the inclusion of PNG and JPEG images. PNG is good for screenshots and other images with few colors. JPEG is great for photos, as it is very space-ecient. It may even be desirable not to draw certain geometric gures, but rather describe the gure with a specialized command language, such as METAPOST, which can be found in most TEX distributions, and comes with its own extensive manual.
4.7.4
Hypertext Links
The hyperref package will take care of turning all internal references of your document into hyperlinks. For this to work properly some magic is necessary, so you have to put \usepackage[pdftex]{hyperref} as the last command into the preamble of your document. Many options are available to customize the behaviour of the hyperref package: either as a comma separated list after the pdftex option \usepackage[pdftex]{hyperref} or on individual lines with the command \hypersetup{options}. The only required option is pdftex; the others are optional and allow you to change the default behaviour of hyperref.7 In the following list the default values are written in an upright font.
7 It is worth noting that the hyperref package is not limited to work with pdfTEX. It can also be congured to embed PDF-specic information into the DVI output of normal A L TEX, which then gets put into the PS le by dvips and is nally picked up by Adobe Distiller when it is used to turn the PS le into PDF.
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Specialities bookmarks (=true,false ) show or hide the bookmarks bar when displaying the document unicode (=false,true ) allows to use characters of non-latin based languages in Acrobats bookmarks pdftoolbar (=true,false ) show or hide Acrobats toolbar pdfmenubar (=true,false ) show or hide Acrobats menu pdffitwindow (=true,false ) adjust the initial magnication of the pdf when displayed pdftitle (={text}) dene the title that gets displayed in the Document Info window of Acrobat pdfauthor (={text}) the name of the PDFs author pdfnewwindow (=true,false ) dene if a new window should get opened when a link leads out of the current document colorlinks (=false,true ) surround the links by color frames (false) or colors the text of the links (true). The color of these links can be congured using the following options (default colors are shown): linkcolor (=red) color of internal links (sections, pages, etc.), citecolor (=green) color of citation links (bibliography) filecolor (=magenta) color of le links urlcolor (=cyan) color of URL links (mail, web) If you are happy with the defaults, use \usepackage[pdftex]{hyperref} To have the bookmark list open and links in color (the =true values are optional): \usepackage[pdftex,bookmarks,colorlinks]{hyperref} When creating PDFs destined for printing, colored links are not a good thing as they end up in gray in the nal output, making it dicult to read. You can use color frames, which are not printed: \usepackage{hyperref} \hypersetup{colorlinks=false} or make links black:
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\usepackage{hyperref} \hypersetup{colorlinks,% citecolor=black,% filecolor=black,% linkcolor=black,% urlcolor=black,% pdftex} When you just want to provide information for the Document Info section of the PDF le: \usepackage[pdfauthor={Pierre Desproges},% pdftitle={Des femmes qui tombent},% pdftex]{hyperref} In addition to the automatic hyperlinks for cross references, it is possible to embed explicit links using
\href{url}{text}
The code The \href{http://www.ctan.org}{CTAN} website. produces the output CTAN; a click on the word CTAN will take you to the CTAN website. If the destination of the link is not a URL but a local le, you can use the \href command: The complete document is \href{manual.pdf}{here} Which produces the text The complete document is here. A click on the word here will open the le manual.pdf. (The lename is relative to the location of the current document). The author of an article might want her readers to easily send email messages by using the \href command inside the \author command on the title page of the document: \author{Mary Oetiker $<$\href{mailto:[e-mail]}% {[e-mail]}$>$ Note that I have put the link so that my email address appears not only in the link but also on the page itself. I did this because the link \href{mailto:[e-mail]}{Mary Oetiker} would work well within Acrobat, but once the page is printed the email address would not be visible anymore.
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Specialities
4.7.5
Problems with Links
Messages like the following: ! pdfTeX warning (ext4): destination with the same identifier (name{page.1}) has been already used, duplicate ignored appear when a counter gets reinitialized, for example by using the command \mainmatter provided by the book document class. It resets the page number counter to 1 prior to the rst chapter of the book. But as the preface of the book also has a page number 1 all links to page 1 would not be unique anymore, hence the notice that duplicate has been ignored. The counter measure consists of putting plainpages=false into the hyperref options. This unfortunately only helps with the page counter. An even more radical solution is to use the option hypertexnames=false, but this will cause the page links in the index to stop working.
4.7.6
Problems with Bookmarks
The text displayed by bookmarks does not always look like you expect it to look. Because bookmarks are just text, much fewer characters are A available for bookmarks than for normal L TEX text. Hyperref will normally notice such problems and put up a warning: Package hyperref Warning: Token not allowed in a PDFDocEncoded string: You can now work around this problem by providing a text string for the bookmarks, which replaces the oending text:
\texorpdfstring{TEX text}{Bookmark Text}
Math expressions are a prime candidate for this kind of problem: \section{\texorpdfstring{$E=mc^2$}% {E=mc^2}} which turns \section{$E=mc^2$} to E=mc2 in the bookmark area. Color changes also do not travel well into bookmarks: \section{\textcolor{red}{Red !}} produces the string redRed!. The command \textcolor gets ignored but its argument (red) gets printed. If you use
A 4.7 Working with pdf L TEX
87
\section{\texorpdfstring{\textcolor{red}{Red !}}{Red\ !}} the result will be much more legible. If you write your document in unicode and use the unicode option for the hyperref package you can use unicode characters in bookmarks. This will give you a much larger selection of characters to pick from when when using \texorpdfstring.
A A Source Compatibility Between L TEX and pdf L TEX A A Ideally your document would compile equally well with L TEX and pdfL TEX. The main problem in this respect is the inclusion of graphics. The simple solution is to systematically drop the le extension from \includegraphics commands. They will then automatically look for a le of a suitable format in the current directory. All you have to do is create appropriate versions of A A the graphics les. L TEX will look for .eps, and pdfL TEX will try to include a le with the extension .png, .pdf, .jpg or .mps (in that order). For the cases where you want to use dierent code for the PDF version of your document, you can simply add the package ifpdf 8 to your preamble. Chances are that you already have it installed; if not then youre probably using MiKTEX which will install it for you automatically the rst time you try to use it. This package denes the special command \ifpdf that will allow you to write conditional code easily. In this example, we want the PostScript version to be black and white due to the printing costs but we want the PDF version for online viewing to be colourful.
\RequirePackage{ifpdf} % running on pdfTeX? \ifpdf \documentclass[a4paper,12pt,pdftex]{book} \else \documentclass[a4paper,12pt,dvips]{book} \fi \ifpdf \usepackage{lmodern} \fi \usepackage[bookmarks, % add hyperlinks colorlinks, plainpages=false]{hyperref} \usepackage[T1]{fontenc} \usepackage[latin1]{inputenc} \usepackage[english]{babel}
If you want the whole story on why to use this package then go to the TEX FAQ under the item http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=ifpdf.
8
88 \usepackage{graphicx} ...
Specialities
In the example above I have included the hyperref package even in the nonPDF version. The eect of this is to make the \href command work in all cases, which saves me from wrapping every occurrence into a conditional statement. Note that in recent TEX distributions (TEXLive for example), the normal TEX program is actually pdfTEX it will automatically switch between producing pdf and dvi according to the settings in the document class. If you use the code above then you can still use the pdflatex command to get pdf output and latex for normal dvi output.
4.8
Creating Presentations
By Daniel Flipo <[e-mail]>
You can present the results of your scientic work on a blackboard, with transparencies, or directly from your laptop using some presentation software. A pdfL TEX combined with the beamer class allows you to create presentations in PDF, looking much like something you might be able to generate with PowerPoint if you had a very good day, but much more portable because Acrobat Reader is available on many more systems. The beamer class uses graphicx, color and hyperref with options adapted to screen presentations. A When you compile the code presented in gure 4.2 with PDFL TEX you get a PDF le with a title page and a second page showing several items that will be reveled one at a time as you step though your presentation. One of the advantages of the beamer class is that it produces a PDF le that is directly usable without rst going through a PostScript stage like prosper or requiring additional post processing like presentations created with the ppower4 package. With the beamer class you can produce several versions (modes) of your document from the same input le. The input le may contain special instructions for the dierent modes in angular brackets. The following modes are available. beamer for the presentation PDF discussed above. trans for slides. handout for the printed version. The default mode is beamer, you can change it by setting a dierent mode as a global option, like \documentclass[10pt,handout]{beamer} to print the handouts for example.
4.8 Creating Presentations
89
\documentclass[10pt]{beamer} \mode<beamer>{% \usetheme[hideothersubsections, right,width=22mm]{Goettingen} } \title{Simple Presentation} \author[D. Flipo]{Daniel Flipo} \institute{U.S.T.L. \& GUTenberg} \titlegraphic{\includegraphics[width=20mm]{USTL}} \date{2005} \begin{document} \begin{frame}<handout:0> \titlepage \end{frame} \section{An Example} \begin{frame} \frametitle{Things to do on a Sunday Afternoon} \begin{block}{One could \ldots} \begin{itemize} \item walk the dog\dots \pause \item read a book\pause \item confuse a cat\pause \end{itemize} \end{block} and many other things \end{frame} \end{document} Figure 4.2: Sample code for the beamer class
90
Specialities The look of the screen presentation depends on the theme you choose. You can either pick one of the themes shipped with the beamer class or you can even create your own. See the beamer class documentation in beameruserguide.pdf for more information on this. Lets have a closer look at the code in gure 4.2. For the screen version of the presentation \mode<beamer> we have chosen the Goettingen theme to show a navigation panel integrated into the table of contents. The options allow to choose the size of the panel (22 mm in this case) and its position (on the right side of the body text). The option hideothersubsections, shows the chapter titles, but only the subsections of the present chapter. There are no special settings for \mode<trans> and \mode<handout>. They appear in their standard layout. The commands \title{}, \author{}, \institute{}, and \titlegraphic{} set the content of the title page. The optional arguments of \title[]{} and \author[]{} let you specify a special version of the title and the author name to be displayed on the panel of the Goettingen theme. The titles and subtitles in the panel are created with normal \section{} and \subsection{} commands that you place outside the frame environment. The tiny navigation icons at the bottom of the screen also allow to navigate the document. Their presence is not dependent on the theme you choose. The contents of each slide or screen has to be placed inside a frame environment. There is an optional argument in angular brackets (< and >), it allows to suppress a particular frame in one of the versions of the presentation. In the example the rst page would not be shown in the handout version due to the <handout:0> argument. It is highly recommended to set a title for each slide apart from the title slide. This is done with the command \frametitle{}. If a subtitle is necessary you can use the block environment as shown in the example. Note that the sectioning commands \section{} and \subsection{} do not produce output on the slide proper. The command \pause in the itemize environment lets you reveal the items one by one. For other presentation eects check out the commands \only, \uncover, \alt and \temporal. In many place you can also use angular brakes to further customize the presentation. In any case make sure you read through the beamer class documentation beameruserguide.pdf to get a complete picture of what is in store for you. This package is being actively developed, check out their website to get the latest information. (http://latex-beamer.sourceforge.net/)
Chapter 5
Producing Mathematical Graphics
A Most people use LTEX for typesetting their text. But as the non content and A structure oriented approach to authoring is so convenient, LTEX also oers a, if somewhat restricted, possibility for producing graphical output from textual deA scriptions. Furthermore, quite a number of LTEX extensions have been created in order to overcome these restrictions. In this section, you will learn about a few of them.
5.1
Overview
A The picture environment allows programming pictures directly in L TEX. A A detailed description can be found in the L TEX Manual [1]. On the one hand, there are rather severe constraints, as the slopes of line segments as well as the radii of circles are restricted to a narrow choice of values. A On the other hand, the picture environment of L TEX 2 brings with it the \qbezier command, q meaning quadratic. Many frequently used curves such as circles, ellipses, or catenaries can be satisfactorily approximated by quadratic Bzier curves, although this may require some mathematical toil. If, in addition, a programming language like Java is used to generate A \qbezier blocks of L TEX input les, the picture environment becomes quite powerful. A Although programming pictures directly in L TEX is severely restricted, and often rather tiresome, there are still reasons for doing so. The documents thus produced are small with respect to bytes, and there are no additional graphics les to be dragged along. A Packages like epic and eepic (described, for instance, in The L TEX Companion [3]), or pstricks help to eliminate the restrictions hampering the original picture environment, and greatly strengthen the graphical power of A L TEX.
92
Producing Mathematical Graphics While the former two packages just enhance the picture environment, the pstricks package has its own drawing environment, pspicture. The power of pstricks stems from the fact that this package makes extensive use of PostScript possibilities. In addition, numerous packages have been written for specic purposes. One of them is X -pic, described at the end Y of this chapter. A wide variety of these packages is described in detail in A A The L TEX Graphics Companion [4] (not to be confused with The L TEX Companion [3]). A Perhaps the most powerful graphical tool related with L TEX is METAPOST, the twin of Donald E. Knuths METAFONT. METAPOST has the very powerful and mathematically sophisticated programming language of METAFONT. Contrary to METAFONT, which generates bitmaps, METAPOST generates encapsulated PostScript les, which can be imported in A L TEX. For an introduction, see A Users Manual for METAPOST [15], or the tutorial on [17]. A A very thorough discussion of L TEX and TEX strategies for graphics (and fonts) can be found in TEX Unbound [16].
5.2
The picture Environment
By Urs Oswald <[e-mail]>
5.2.1
Basic Commands
A picture environment1 is created with one of the two commands
\begin{picture}(x, y). . . \end{picture}
or
\begin{picture}(x, y)(x0 , y0 ). . . \end{picture}
The numbers x, y, x0 , y0 refer to \unitlength, which can be reset any time (but not within a picture environment) with a command such as
\setlength{\unitlength}{1.2cm}
The default value of \unitlength is 1pt. The rst pair, (x, y), eects the reservation, within the document, of rectangular space for the picture. The optional second pair, (x0 , y0 ), assigns arbitrary coordinates to the bottom left corner of the reserved rectangle.
A Believe it or not, the picture environment works out of the box, with standard L TEX 2 no package loading necessary. 1
5.2 The picture Environment Most drawing commands have one of the two forms
\put(x, y){object}
93
or
\multiput(x, y)(x, y){n}{object}
Bzier curves are an exception. They are drawn with the command
\qbezier(x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 )(x3 , y3 )
94
Producing Mathematical Graphics
5.2.2
Line Segments
\setlength{\unitlength}{5cm} \begin{picture}(1,1) \put(0,0){\line(0,1){1}} \put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}} \put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}} \put(0,0){\line(1,2){.5}} \put(0,0){\line(1,3){.3333}} \put(0,0){\line(1,4){.25}} \put(0,0){\line(1,5){.2}} \put(0,0){\line(1,6){.1667}} \put(0,0){\line(2,1){1}} \put(0,0){\line(2,3){.6667}} \put(0,0){\line(2,5){.4}} \put(0,0){\line(3,1){1}} \put(0,0){\line(3,2){1}} \put(0,0){\line(3,4){.75}} \put(0,0){\line(3,5){.6}} \put(0,0){\line(4,1){1}} \put(0,0){\line(4,3){1}} \put(0,0){\line(4,5){.8}} \put(0,0){\line(5,1){1}} \put(0,0){\line(5,2){1}} \put(0,0){\line(5,3){1}} \put(0,0){\line(5,4){1}} \put(0,0){\line(5,6){.8333}} \put(0,0){\line(6,1){1}} \put(0,0){\line(6,5){1}} \end{picture}
( (7 7 7 ( D 7 D ( 5 D5 7 5& ( & D ( 7 5& D 7 D&&4 5 ( 4 5 7 D&4 ( 544 7 (D 5& 3 D ( &433 7 5&4 (&3 544 3 3 7D D $ 3 4 (5 7 &3$$$ 2 2 D 5 $$$$22@ 74 &3$222@@ @ ( 433 D 5 &3$22@@@ $2@@ 4$2@ ( 2@ 3 7 D 5 & 4 D 7 @ $@ $ @ & 4 5 ( 3 2 $2 @ 2 3
Line segments are drawn with the command
\put(x, y){\line(x1 , y1 ){length}}
The \line command has two arguments: 1. a direction vector, 2. a length. The components of the direction vector are restricted to the integers 6, 5, . . . , 5, 6, and they have to be coprime (no common divisor except 1). The gure illustrates all 25 possible slope values in the rst quadrant. The length is relative to \unitlength. The length argument is the vertical coordinate in the case of a vertical line segment, the horizontal coordinate in all other cases.
5.2 The picture Environment
95
5.2.3
Arrows
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.75mm} \begin{picture}(60,40) \put(30,20){\vector(1,0){30}} \put(30,20){\vector(4,1){20}} \put(30,20){\vector(3,1){25}} \put(30,20){\vector(2,1){30}} \put(30,20){\vector(1,2){10}} \thicklines \put(30,20){\vector(-4,1){30}} \put(30,20){\vector(-1,4){5}} \thinlines \put(30,20){\vector(-1,-1){5}} \put(30,20){\vector(-1,-4){5}} \end{picture}
! B g I y $ X g $$$ E $ g y gg
Arrows are drawn with the command
\put(x, y){\vector(x1 , y1 ){length}}
For arrows, the components of the direction vector are even more narrowly restricted than for line segments, namely to the integers
4, 3, . . . , 3, 4.
Components also have to be coprime (no common divisor except 1). Notice the eect of the \thicklines command on the two arrows pointing to the upper left.
96
Producing Mathematical Graphics
5.2.4
Circles
\setlength{\unitlength}{1mm} \begin{picture}(60, 40) \put(20,30){\circle{1}} \put(20,30){\circle{2}} \put(20,30){\circle{4}} \put(20,30){\circle{8}} \put(20,30){\circle{16}} \put(20,30){\circle{32}} \put(40,30){\circle{1}} \put(40,30){\circle{2}} \put(40,30){\circle{3}} \put(40,30){\circle{4}} \put(40,30){\circle{5}} \put(40,30){\circle{6}} \put(40,30){\circle{7}} \put(40,30){\circle{8}} \put(40,30){\circle{9}} \put(40,30){\circle{10}} \put(40,30){\circle{11}} \put(40,30){\circle{12}} \put(40,30){\circle{13}} \put(40,30){\circle{14}} \put(15,10){\circle*{1}} \put(20,10){\circle*{2}} \put(25,10){\circle*{3}} \put(30,10){\circle*{4}} \put(35,10){\circle*{5}} \end{picture}
96 96 52 1( '$ # # j e m j h e "! 0) "! &% 43 87 87 r u x z}
The command
\put(x, y){\circle{diameter}}
draws a circle with center (x, y) and diameter (not radius) diameter. The picture environment only admits diameters up to approximately 14 mm, and even below this limit, not all diameters are possible. The \circle* command produces disks (lled circles). As in the case of line segments, one may have to resort to additional packages, such as eepic or pstricks. For a thorough description of these A packages, see The L TEX Graphics Companion [4]. There is also a possibility within the picture environment. If one is not afraid of doing the necessary calculations (or leaving them to a program), arbitrary circles and ellipses can be patched together from quadratic Bzier A curves. See Graphics in L TEX 2 [17] for examples and Java source les.
5.2 The picture Environment
97
5.2.5
Text and Formulas
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.8cm} \begin{picture}(6,5) \thicklines \put(1,0.5){\line(2,1){3}} \put(4,2){\line(-2,1){2}} \put(2,3){\line(-2,-5){1}} \put(0.7,0.3){$A$} \put(4.05,1.9){$B$} \put(1.7,2.95){$C$} \put(3.1,2.5){$a$} \put(1.3,1.7){$b$} \put(2.5,1.05){$c$} \put(0.3,4){$F= \sqrt{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}$} \put(3.5,0.4){$\displaystyle s:=\frac{a+b+c}{2}$} \end{picture}
F=
s(s a)(s b)(s c)
Cr rra r rB b c a+b+c s := A 2
As this example shows, text and formulas can be written into a picture environment with the \put command in the usual way.
5.2.6
\multiput and \linethickness
\setlength{\unitlength}{2mm} \begin{picture}(30,20) \linethickness{0.075mm} \multiput(0,0)(1,0){26}% {\line(0,1){20}} \multiput(0,0)(0,1){21}% {\line(1,0){25}} \linethickness{0.15mm} \multiput(0,0)(5,0){6}% {\line(0,1){20}} \multiput(0,0)(0,5){5}% {\line(1,0){25}} \linethickness{0.3mm} \multiput(5,0)(10,0){2}% {\line(0,1){20}} \multiput(0,5)(0,10){2}% {\line(1,0){25}} \end{picture}
The command
\multiput(x, y)(x, y){n}{object}
has 4 arguments: the starting point, the translation vector from one ob-
98
Producing Mathematical Graphics ject to the next, the number of objects, and the object to be drawn. The \linethickness command applies to horizontal and vertical line segments, but neither to oblique line segments, nor to circles. It does, however, apply to quadratic Bzier curves!
5.2.7
Ovals
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.75cm} \begin{picture}(6,4) \linethickness{0.075mm} \multiput(0,0)(1,0){7}% {\line(0,1){4}} \multiput(0,0)(0,1){5}% {\line(1,0){6}} \thicklines \put(2,3){\oval(3,1.8)} \thinlines \put(3,2){\oval(3,1.8)} \thicklines \put(2,1){\oval(3,1.8)[tl]} \put(4,1){\oval(3,1.8)[b]} \put(4,3){\oval(3,1.8)[r]} \put(3,1.5){\oval(1.8,0.4)} \end{picture}
5 5
22 2
4 33 5 4 3 4 3
The command
\put(x, y){\oval(w, h)}
or
\put(x, y){\oval(w, h)[position]}
produces an oval centered at (x, y) and having width w and height h. The optional position arguments b, t, l, r refer to top, bottom, left, right, and can be combined, as the example illustrates. Line thickness can be controlled by two kinds of commands: \linethickness{length} on the one hand, \thinlines and \thicklines on the other. While \linethickness{length} applies only to horizontal and vertical lines (and quadratic Bzier curves), \thinlines and \thicklines apply to oblique line segments as well as to circles and ovals.
5.2 The picture Environment
99
5.2.8
Multiple Use of Predened Picture Boxes
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.5mm} \begin{picture}(120,168) \newsavebox{\foldera} \savebox{\foldera} (40,32)[bl]{% definition \multiput(0,0)(0,28){2} {\line(1,0){40}} \multiput(0,0)(40,0){2} {\line(0,1){28}} \put(1,28){\oval(2,2)[tl]} \put(1,29){\line(1,0){5}} \put(9,29){\oval(6,6)[tl]} \put(9,32){\line(1,0){8}} \put(17,29){\oval(6,6)[tr]} \put(20,29){\line(1,0){19}} \put(39,28){\oval(2,2)[tr]} } \newsavebox{\folderb} \savebox{\folderb} (40,32)[l]{% definition \put(0,14){\line(1,0){8}} \put(8,0){\usebox{\foldera}} } \put(34,26){\line(0,1){102}} \put(14,128){\usebox{\foldera}} \multiput(34,86)(0,-37){3} {\usebox{\folderb}} \end{picture}
A picture box can be declared by the command
\newsavebox{name}
then dened by
\savebox{name}(width,height)[position]{content}
and nally arbitrarily often be drawn by
\put(x, y)\usebox{name}
The optional position parameter has the eect of dening the anchor point of the savebox. In the example it is set to bl which puts the anchor point into the bottom left corner of the savebox. The other position speciers are top and right.
100
Producing Mathematical Graphics
A The name argument refers to a L TEX storage bin and therefore is of a command nature (which accounts for the backslashes in the current example). Boxed pictures can be nested: In this example, \foldera is used within the denition of \folderb. The \oval command had to be used as the \line command does not work if the segment length is less than about 3 mm.
5.2.9
Quadratic Bzier Curves
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.8cm} \begin{picture}(6,4) \linethickness{0.075mm} \multiput(0,0)(1,0){7} {\line(0,1){4}} \multiput(0,0)(0,1){5} {\line(1,0){6}} \thicklines \put(0.5,0.5){\line(1,5){0.5}} \put(1,3){\line(4,1){2}} \qbezier(0.5,0.5)(1,3)(3,3.5) \thinlines \put(2.5,2){\line(2,-1){3}} \put(5.5,0.5){\line(-1,5){0.5}} \linethickness{1mm} \qbezier(2.5,2)(5.5,0.5)(5,3) \thinlines \qbezier(4,2)(4,3)(3,3) \qbezier(3,3)(2,3)(2,2) \qbezier(2,2)(2,1)(3,1) \qbezier(3,1)(4,1)(4,2) \end{picture}
$ $$ $$ h h h rr h rr rh rr h
As this example illustrates, splitting up a circle into 4 quadratic Bzier curves is not satisfactory. At least 8 are needed. The gure again shows the eect of the \linethickness command on horizontal or vertical lines, and of the \thinlines and the \thicklines commands on oblique line segments. It also shows that both kinds of commands aect quadratic Bzier curves, each command overriding all previous ones. Let P1 = (x1 , y1 ), P2 = (x2 , y2 ) denote the end points, and m1 , m2 the respective slopes, of a quadratic Bzier curve. The intermediate control point S = (x, y) is then given by the equations m2 x2 m1 x1 (y2 y1 ) , m2 m1 y = yi + mi (x xi ) (i = 1, 2).
x=
(5.1)
A See Graphics in L TEX 2 [17] for a Java program which generates the necessary \qbezier command line.
5.2 The picture Environment
101
5.2.10
Catenary
\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm} \begin{picture}(4.3,3.6)(-2.5,-0.25) \put(-2,0){\vector(1,0){4.4}} \put(2.45,-.05){$x$} \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){3.2}} \put(0,3.35){\makebox(0,0){$y$}} \qbezier(0.0,0.0)(1.2384,0.0) (2.0,2.7622) \qbezier(0.0,0.0)(-1.2384,0.0) (-2.0,2.7622) \linethickness{.075mm} \multiput(-2,0)(1,0){5} {\line(0,1){3}} \multiput(-2,0)(0,1){4} {\line(1,0){4}} \linethickness{.2mm} \put( .3,.12763){\line(1,0){.4}} \put(.5,-.07237){\line(0,1){.4}} \put(-.7,.12763){\line(1,0){.4}} u \put(-.5,-.07237){\line(0,1){.4}} \put(.8,.54308){\line(1,0){.4}} \put(1,.34308){\line(0,1){.4}} \put(-1.2,.54308){\line(1,0){.4}} \put(-1,.34308){\line(0,1){.4}} \put(1.3,1.35241){\line(1,0){.4}} \put(1.5,1.15241){\line(0,1){.4}} \put(-1.7,1.35241){\line(1,0){.4}} \put(-1.5,1.15241){\line(0,1){.4}} \put(-2.5,-0.25){\circle*{0.2}} \end{picture}
y T
Ex
In this gure, each symmetric half of the catenary y = cosh x 1 is approximated by a quadratic Bzier curve. The right half of the curve ends in the point (2, 2.7622), the slope there having the value m = 3.6269. Using again equation (5.1), we can calculate the intermediate control points. They turn out to be (1.2384, 0) and (1.2384, 0). The crosses indicate points of the real catenary. The error is barely noticeable, being less than one percent. This example points out the use of the optional argument of the \begin{picture} command. The picture is dened in convenient mathematical coordinates, whereas by the command
\begin{picture}(4.3,3.6)(-2.5,-0.25)
its lower left corner (marked by the black disk) is assigned the coordinates (2.5, 0.25).
102
Producing Mathematical Graphics
5.2.11
Rapidity in the Special Theory of Relativity
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.8cm} \begin{picture}(6,4)(-3,-2) \put(-2.5,0){\vector(1,0){5}} \put(2.7,-0.1){$\chi$} \put(0,-1.5){\vector(0,1){3}} \multiput(-2.5,1)(0.4,0){13} {\line(1,0){0.2}} \multiput(-2.5,-1)(0.4,0){13} {\line(1,0){0.2}} \put(0.2,1.4) {$\beta=v/c=\tanh\chi$} \qbezier(0,0)(0.8853,0.8853) (2,0.9640) \qbezier(0,0)(-0.8853,-0.8853) (-2,-0.9640) \put(-3,-2){\circle*{0.2}} \end{picture}
= v/c = tanh T E
t
The control points of the two Bzier curves were calculated with formulas (5.1). The positive branch is determined by P1 = (0, 0), m1 = 1 and P2 = (2, tanh 2), m2 = 1/ cosh2 2. Again, the picture is dened in mathematically convenient coordinates, and the lower left corner is assigned the mathematical coordinates (3, 2) (black disk).
5.3
The TikZ & PGF Graphics Package
A Today every L TEX output generation system can create nice vector graphics, its just the interfaces that are rather diverse. The PGF package provides an abstraction layer over these interface and lets you use simple commands to conveniently create complex vector graphics right from inside your document. The PGF package comes with its own 500+ page documentation [?]. So we are only going to scratch the surface of the package with this little section.
For high level access to the PGF functions you should load the tikz package. With the tikz package you can use highly ecient commands to draw graphics right from inside your document. Use the tikzpicture environment to wrap your instructions.
5.3 The TikZ & PGF Graphics Package
\begin{tikzpicture}[scale=3] \clip (-0.1,-0.2) rectangle (1.8,1.2); \draw[step=.25cm,gray,very thin] (-1.4,-1.4) grid (3.4,3.4); \draw (-1.5,0) -- (2.5,0); \draw (0,-1.5) -- (0,1.5); \draw (0,0) circle (1cm); \filldraw[fill=green!20!white, draw=green!50!black] (0,0) -- (3mm,0mm) arc (0:30:3mm) -- cycle; \end{tikzpicture}
103
If you know other programming languages you may notice the familiar semicolon (;) character that is used to separate the dierent commands. With the \usetikzlibrary command in the preamble you can enable a wide variety of additional features for drawing special shapes, like this box which is slightly bent.
\usetikzlibrary{% decorations.pathmorphing} \begin{tikzpicture}[ decoration={bent,aspect=.3}] \draw [decorate,fill=lightgray] (0,0) rectangle (5.5,2); \node[circle,draw] (A) at (.5,.5) {A}; \node[circle,draw] (B) at (5,1.5) {B}; \draw[->,decorate] (A) -- (B); \draw[->,decorate] (B) -- (A); \end{tikzpicture}
B A
You can even draw diagrams that look as if they came straight from a book on pascal programming. The code is a bit more daunting than the example above, so I will just show you the result. If you have a look at the PGF documentation you will nd a detailed tutorial on drawing this exact diagram.
+ unsigned integer . digit E unsigned integer
104
Producing Mathematical Graphics And there is more, if you have to draw plots of numerical data or functions, you should have a closer look at the pgfplot package. It provides everything you need to draw plots. It can even call the external gnuplot command to evaluate actual functions you wrote into the graph.
Chapter 6 A Customising L TEX
Documents produced with the commands you have learned up to this point will look acceptable to a large audience. While they are not fancy-looking, they obey all the established rules of good typesetting, which will make them easy to read and pleasant to look at. A However, there are situations where LTEX does not provide a command or environment that matches your needs, or the output produced by some existing command may not meet your requirements. A In this chapter, I will try to give some hints on how to teach LTEX new tricks and how to make it produce output that looks dierent from what is provided by default.
6.1
New Commands, Environments and Packages
You may have noticed that all the commands I introduce in this book are typeset in a box, and that they show up in the index at the end of the book. A Instead of directly using the necessary L TEX commands to achieve this, I have created a package in which I dened new commands and environments for this purpose. Now I can simply write:
\begin{lscommand} \ci{dum} \end{lscommand} \dum
In this example, I am using both a new environment called lscommand, which is responsible for drawing the box around the command, and a new command named \ci, which typesets the command name and makes a corresponding entry in the ...