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DepartmentofHistory OakwoodUniversity
TheArabinfluenceonNorthAfrica
By
OrchadiaMcLean
Forthecourse: AfricanCivilization(HI325)
Submittedto:Prof.Saunders
M c L e a n |2 December,2008 TheArabizationofNorthAfrica NorthAfricaofthemodernworldnolongerseemstotrulyapartofthecontinent.In facttherearehistorianswhoquestionitsrelationtotherestofblackAfrica.Recent historyseemstoconfirmthevalidityinthequestioningoftheAfricanIdentity foundintheNorthernportionoftheAfricancontinent,fromtheallianceofAlgeria, Egypt,Libya,Morocco,Tunisia(evenMauritania)withtheArabLeague,tothe refusalofmanyNorthAfricanstobecalledAfrican.DominatedbyArabs,itishard toseewhatcommonculturethefivecountriesofNorthAfricasharewiththeir continentalneighbors.InexaminingthehistoryofNorthAfricanwecandeduceas tohowthisdramaticculturalandracialshiftoccurred. Whowastherefirst? ThepeopleofNorthAfricatodayareamixofArabsfromtheeast,originalBerbers (someofwhomidentifyasArab),somePakistanis,Turks,Indiansandvarious Europeans.Increasingly,otherAfricansaretravelingacrosstheSaharatoNorth Africa.SouthernEuropeisalltoofamiliarwithirregularmigrationfromNorth AfricancountriessuchasMorocco,Algeria,andTunisia.Sincetheearly1990s, thousandsofNorthAfricanshaveattemptedtocrosstheMediterraneantoreach SpainandItaly.But,asthemigrationcrisesinMorocco'sSpanishenclavesin2005
M c L e a n |3 andSpain'sCanaryIslandsin2006madeclear,subSaharanAfricansare increasinglymigratingtoNorthAfricancountries,withsomeusingtheregionasa pointoftransittoEuropeandsomeremaininginNorthAfrica.Thesemigrants comefromanincreasinglydiversearrayofcountriesandregions,suchasSenegal, theGambia,SierraLeone,Liberia,Mali,Cted'Ivoire,Ghana,andNigeriaaswell astheDemocraticRepublicofCongo,Cameroon,Sudan,theHornofAfrica,and evenAsia.1However,goingbackintothehistoryofNorthAfricaafewthousand yearspresentsadifferentpicture.ProfessorDwightReynoldsofUniversityof California,SantaBarbarainhisinterviewwithAfroPop radio host and senior editor, BanningEyretalksabouttheidentityandheritageofthisregion.Theindigenous cultureofNorthAfrica,beforethearrivalofthePhoenicians,theperiodofGreek influence,andtheRomanconquest,wasofcoursethepeoplethatwenowcallthe Berbers.ThetermBerberisproblematicforanumberofdifferentreasons.Firstof all,itisaverypejorativeterm.ItcomestousfromGreekandLatin,andoriginally meantanyonewhodidn'tspeakGreek,thatissomeonewhobabbles,someonewho isabarbarian.Ourword"barbarian"comesfromthesamerootastheword Berber.Soitisapejorativetermthatdoesn'tcomefromwithinBerberculture,but
1Hass,Heinde.MigrationPolicyInstitute.November2006. http://www.migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID=484
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M c L e a n |4 fromoutside,usedbyGreeksandRomanstorefertothenativeindigenouspeoples ofNorthAfrica. Reynoldscontinues,TheotherproblematicaspectofthetermBerberisthatit impliesthatallBerbersaresomehowthesamepeople.Althoughtheyarerelated people,theydonothaveintheBerberlanguages,asingletermthatreferstoall Berbers.Theyrefertoeachotherbythevariousdifferenttribalorlargertribal Confederationterms.TheSanhaja,theZanata,theImazighen.Reynoldscontinues toexplain,Inveryrecenttimes,inthe20thcentury,moreandmoreBerbershave beenadoptingthetermImazighen,whichoriginallycomesfromnorthernMorocco, tomeanallBerbers,whetherthey'reliveinMorocco,Algeria,Tunisia,Egypt,Mali, orothercountries.2 AlmostallAlgeriansareBerberinorigin,notArab;theminoritywho[do]identify themselvesasBerberlivemostlyinthemountainousregionofKabylieeastof Algiers;theBerbersarealsoMuslimbutidentifywiththeirBerberratherthan Arabculturalheritage;3ProfessorDwightReynoldselaborates,Theheartlandof
2Reynolds,Dwight,interviewbyBanningEyre.DwightReynoldsontheArabizationofNorthAfrica(2006). InterviewonPublicRadiomusicshowAfroPopdiscussingBerbercultureandmusic.
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3CIAWorldFactbook.TheWorldFactbook:Algeria.November20,2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworldfactbook/geos/ag.html#People
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M c L e a n |5 theBerberpeoplesarethecountriesnowknownasMoroccoandAlgeria.The largest[percentagesofBerbers]liveinthosetwocountries.TherearealsoBerbers, however,inTunisiaandLibya,andtheEasternmostpointofBerberdistribution thatweknowofisanoasisintheWesternSaharaDesertofEgypt,andthatoasisis calledSiwa,andthelanguagethattheyspeakthereisSiwi,anditisaBerber language.Movingsouth,theBerberpeoplethatmostpeoplehaveheardofarethe Tuareg,theBlueMenoftheSahara,knownfortheirdarkblue,indigocolored headdressesandveils,andforthefactthatmencoveredtheirmouthswithpartof theirheaddress,orveil,ifyouwill.Theyaresometimesreferredtoas"theveiled menoftheSahara."AndtheyoccupyanareathatincludespartsofMali, Mauritania,Algeria,andneighboringcountries.4Sothesepeople,theBerbers,are whatwewouldcalltheoriginalAfricansofNorthAfrica;however,asDwight Reynoldsstates,...mostofwhatwecallNorthAfricahastobethoughtofalsoas theSouthernMediterranean. ToreKjeilen,hasaMastersinScienceofReligionfromUniversityofBergen(witha concentrationinArabicandHistory)andoutlinesonLookLexencyclopediaa
4Reynolds,Dwight,interviewbyBanningEyre.DwightReynoldsontheArabizationofNorthAfrica(2006). Continuationoftheinterviewtranscriptcanbefoundhere: http://www.afropop.org/multi/interview/ID/92/Dwight+Reynolds+on+the+Arabization+of+North+Afr ica
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M c L e a n |6 succinctculturalanalysisoftheBerbers.Hestates,Berberscompriseaclear majorityofthepopulationofNorthAfricaintermsofrace,butintermsofidentity, aconsiderableminority.Itisessentialtounderstandthisdifferencebetweenrace andidentityinordertograspthemeaningofbeingBerber.TheinfluxofArabsin NorthAfricahasbeenfartooinsignificantthroughouthistorytojustifythoselarge numbersofpeoplenowclaimingtobeArabs.Andtheinfluxofotherpeoplesin NorthAfricahasnotbeenofanysignificancesincetheVandalsinthe5thcentury.5 Kjeilenalsowrites,Thus,intermsofrace,Berbersrepresent80%ofthepopulation inMoroccoandAlgeria,morethan60%inTunisiaandLibyaand2%inEgypt, makingupmorethan50millionpeople.Inadditionthereareabout4million BerberslivinginEurope,primarilyinFrance.ButastheArabizationhasswept awaytheindigenouslanguagefrommanyregionsand,alongwithit,theBerber identity,manypeoplewithBerberancestry,arenowclaimingtobeArabs.Interms ofidentity,Berbersrepresent40%ofallMoroccans,30%ofallAlgerians,5%ofall Tunisians,10%ofallLibyansand0,5%ofallEgyptians,makingupmorethan20 millionpeople.AnestimatedhalfoftheethnicBerberslivinginEuroperegard
5Kjeilen,Tore.LooklexEncyclopedia.2008.http://icias.com/e.o/berbers.htm(accessedDecember4, 2008).
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M c L e a n |7 themselvesasBerbers,makingup2million.6InEgyptthepeopleareevenmore diverseintheirbackground,reflectingitsthousandsofyearsasacosmopolitanhub oftheancientworld.TheEgyptiantodayreflectsHamitic,Semetic,Arab,Turkish, European,andGreekracialmixing,withsomeRomanforgoodmeasure.Thatis why(untilrecently)EgyptiansviewedthemselvesasadifferentracefromtheirArab andAfricanneighbors.However,increasedinvolvementinIslamicworldaffairshas causeanidentitychangewhichisaddressedfurtherbelow.Itwouldthenfollowthat theBerbersthemselvesarenotcoloredliketherestofthecontinentbecauseof constanttradeandmilitaryincursionsthroughouttheirfourthousandyearplus recordedhistory.Thisvisualaspectofracialcategorizationhasbeenastumbling block,notforAfricansolidarity,butWesternmediaandArabtalkingpoints.7 WhydidArabsmigratefromtheMiddleEast? So,aswerecognizetheBerberethnicgroupasthenativepeopleofNorthAfrica thenweseethatIslamandArabicwerenotanoriginalpartoftheculture.Howdid thislanguageandreligionwhichoriginatedoutoftheMiddleEastarriveacrossthe
6Ibid.
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7BBCNews.HowAfricanisNorthAfrica?January23,2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3421527.stm(accessedDecember4,2008).Permanentlinkshows commentsbyreadersfromNorthAfrica,WestAfricaandvariousplacesintheAfricanDiaspora;alongwith Westerners.
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M c L e a n |8 SinaiPeninsula?AccordingtoEncyclopaediaBritannica,thefirstinvasionofAfrica occurredin640,whenAmribnalAstheConquerorledhisArabarmyintoEgypt, thiscrossingfromAsiatoAfricawasduetotheexpresseddecreeofMohammadthe prophettoconquerandconvertthesurroundingnationstoIslam.AftertheArabs territorytoitswest,whichtheycalledBiladalMaghrib(LandsoftheWest)or completedtheconquestofEgyptin642,theystartedtoraidtheBerber(Amazigh) simplytheMaghrib.In705thisregionbecameaprovinceoftheMuslimempire thenruledfromDamascusbytheUmayyadcaliphs(661750).TheArabMuslim conquerorshadamuchmoredurableimpactonthecultureoftheMaghribthandid theregion'sconquerorsbeforeandafterthem.Bythe11thcenturytheBerbershad becomeIslamizedandtookonsometokensofArabculture.Theregion'sindigenous Christiancommunities,whichbeforetheArabconquesthadconstitutedan importantpartoftheChristianworld,ceasedtoexist.TheIslamizationofthe BerberswasaconsequenceoftheArabconquest,althoughtheywereneither forciblyconvertedtoIslamnorsystematicallyproselytizedbytheirconquerors. LargelybecauseitsteachingsbecameanideologythroughwhichtheBerbers justifiedboththeirrebellionagainstthecaliphsandtheirsupportofrulerswho rejectedcaliphauthority,Islamgainedwideappealandspreadrapidlyamongthese
M c L e a n |9 fiercelyindependentpeoples. ArabraidstothewestofEgyptconcentratedatfirstontheareaofCyrenaicain presentdayLibya.Tunisiawasraidedseveraltimesafter647,butnoattemptwas madetoestablishArabruletherebefore670.ConflictsamongtheMuslimleaders, especiallyaftertheassassinationofthethirdcaliph,'Uthmanibn'Affan,in656, hinderedMuslimterritorialexpansion;onlyaftertheUmayyadshadconsolidated theirauthorityasacaliphaldynastyinthe660sandhadcometoviewtheconquest oftheMaghribinthecontextofconfrontationwiththeByzantineEmpiredidthis conquestbecomevital.8ThisconquestbyArabswasnotaneeddrivenmigrationof peoplebutapoliticalandterritorialexpansion.ItdidnotleadtoanyArabinflux fromtheMiddleEast.RatherarulingclassofArabscamein,muchlikeWestern colonizationwhereafewhadinfluenceandcontroloverthemany.Themain motivationfortheArabstocrossNorthAfricaandmaintainpoliticalstrengththere wasthedesiretoseeIslamcovertheworld.However,thereasontheystayedasa rulingclassforcenturiestocomewaseconomicnotreligious.Fromthetimeofthe Phoenicians,NorthAfricawasknownforitsfertilecostalplainsandabundant
8EncyclopaediaBritannica.NorthAfrica.2008.http://search.eb.com/eb/article46482(accessed December4,2008).
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M c L e a n |10 resources.TheArabsalsonowhadclosercontactwithEuropeandwereableto tradewithWestAfricathroughthepreestablishedcaravansoftheBerbers9 ArabsfromtheMidEastdidnotalwaysruletheMaghrib.TheAlmoravidswerea MuslimBerberdynastythatruledMoroccoandalAndalus(MuslimSpain)inthe 11thand12thcenturies.TheyconqueredMoroccoandtheMaghribasfareastasthe Algiers.10TheAlmoravidsthenfelltoseveralrivalBerberclanswhosplitmostof theirterritory.TheZayyaniddynastyheldcontrolofmostoftheirterritoryto westernAlgeriauntilinstabilityledtopiratingandconflictwiththeSpaniardsand PortuguesewhoviedwiththeOttomanTurksforcontroloftradesinthewestern Mediterranean.CorsairsraidedChristianshipswhichledtotheSpanishblockade andoccupationofportsthatwereknowaspiratedens.11 ThisinstabilityandChristianforayintofiercelyMuslimterritoryledtotheriseof OttomanruleinAlgiers,TunisiaandLibya.Moroccowastheonlyonetomaintain itsindependencehoweverthefallofMuslimSpainledtotheIberianpowers
9editedbyWillieF.Page;revisededitioneditedbyR.HuntDavisJr.EncyclopediaofAfricanHistoryand CultureVol2:AfricanKingdoms(500to1500).NewYork:FactsonFileInc.,2005.
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10Ibid.Sectiontitled:Almoravids
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11EncyclopediaofAfricanHistoryandCultureVol3:FromConquesttoColonialization(1500to1850).New York:FactsonFileInc.,2005.
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M c L e a n |11 becominginvolvedinMoroccanaffairs.12Thisshortviewonwhat,overmany centuries,becameModernNorthAfricashowsthatcontrolofthevariouscountries wasnotstrictlyArab,Berber,Islamic,orEuropeanChristianatanypointinhistory manychangestookplaceovertimeandhelpedtoshapetheidentitythatNorth Africansholdtoday.
IsNorthAfricastillAfrica? TheArabinvasionofNorthAfricainthe7thCenturyandthecontinuedArab dominanceofNorthAfricancountrieshaveledmanytodoubttheAfricannessof thesecountries.However,historicalfindingssuggestthatNorthAfricaisAfrica properandsimplyshowstheeffectsofArabcolonialruleandEuropeaninfluence. TheculturaldominanceoftheArabsandthewillingnessoftheBerberpeopleto assimilateandconverttoArabIslamicculturehavecreatedamarkedcontrastin comparisontothemorehomogeneousregionsoftheSubSahara,whereforeign influencewasdistantandnegotiable.However,theBerberswhomakeupthe majorityofthepopulationofNorthAfricaareAfricans,tiedtotheland.Unlessthe AtlasMountainsbelongtoEuropeandthesourceoftheNilefoundinArabiathere
12EncyclopediaofAfricanHistoryandCultureVol3:FromConquesttoColonialization(1500to1850).New York:FactsonFileInc.,2005.
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M c L e a n |12 isnodisputingthattheoriginofthepeoplesinthesevariouscountrieshavetheir rootsinAfrica;moderndiplomatictieswiththeMiddleEastandEgyptsown uniqueracialidentityhasledWesternerstoviewtheseNationstothenorthas separateandapart.Howeverthediplomatictiesthatthesecountrieshavetothe MidEastisbasedstronglyinreligionandnotrace.Egypt,forexample,wasitsown Nationwithonlyformalpolitical(notcultural)bondstotheArabempireseastofthe SinaiPeninsula.ItwasnotuntiltheonsetofWorldWarII,Egyptsforced occupationbytheBritisharmyledKingFarukandtheWafdPartytoseekout similarlyBritishoccupiedalliesandin1945,Egyptbecameafoundingmemberof theArabLeague.WhilepreservingthesovereigntyofeachArabcountry,theArab leaguecoordinatedtheireffortsonkeyArabissues;themostpressingofthetime wasthecreationofaJewishstateinPalestine.13RightontheborderofEgypts SinaiPeninsula.ThisissueandtheresurgenceofIslamasapoliticalpowerhasled totheEgyptianidentitybecomemoreArabbythedecade.SimilarlyinAlgeria,the FrenchcolonialrulediscriminatedagainstMuslims(ofeverycolor)sotherallying pointwasnotethnicity,(AstherewasnomajorArabimmigrationduringthe19th and20thcenturymostwereseenasnativeAlgerians),itwasreligion.Unliketheir
13EncyclopediaofAfricanHistoryandCultureVol4:TheColonialEra(1850to1960).NewYork:Factson FileInc.,2005.
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M c L e a n |13 WestAfricanandEastAfricancounterpartsNorthAfricanshadacommontongue andacommonbeliefsystemthatsupersededsupposedtribalbonds.This cohesivenessnotonlyhelpedwithpostColonialunificationofthecountriesbutit alsoleadtoincreasedinteractionwithArabnationswhosharedsimilarviewsand dealtwithEuropesimilarlytoo.Clearly,asshownthroughhistoricalrecord,Islam hasneverbeenaboutracialidentity.So,theassumptionthatallMuslimsareof Arababstractionisunfounded.Theotherassumptionsaboutwhatconstitutes AfricanandtheideathattheblackAfricanistheonlytrueAfricanisspurious;the productofthemodernworldsobsessionwithskincolorandrace.Sotheself identityoftheNorthAfricanmaybedifferentthanhisSubSaharanbrethrenbut hishomeisstillheldbythecoastsofAfricaandhisculturereflectsthat.
M c L e a n |14
References BBCNews.HowAfricanisNorthAfrica?January23,2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3421527.stm(accessedDecember4,2008). CIAWorldFactbook.TheWorldFactbook:Algeria.November20,2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworldfactbook/geos/ag.html#People (accessedDecember04,2008). editedbyWillieF.Page;revisededitioneditedbyR.HuntDavisJr.Encyclopediaof AfricanHistoryandCultureVol2:AfricanKingdoms(500to1500).NewYork:Factson FileInc.,2005. .EncyclopediaofAfricanHistoryandCultureVol3:FromConquesttoColonialization (1500to1850).NewYork:FactsonFileInc.,2005. .EncyclopediaofAfricanHistoryandCultureVol4:TheColonialEra(1850to1960). NewYork:FactsonFileInc.,2005. EncyclopaediaBritannica.NorthAfrica.2008.http://search.eb.com/eb/article46482 (accessedDecember4,2008). Hass,Heinde.MigrationPolicyInstitute.November2006. http://www.migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID=484(accessedDecember 4,2008). Kjeilen,Tore.LooklexEncyclopedia.2008.http://icias.com/e.o/berbers.htm(accessed December4,2008).
M c L e a n |15 Masonen,Pekka.TransSaharanTradeandtheWestAfricanDiscoveryofthe MediterraneanWorld.June22,1995.http://www.smi.uib.no/paj/Masonen.html (accessedDecember4,2008). Reynolds,Dwight,interviewbyBanningEyre.DwightReynoldsontheArabizationof NorthAfrica(2006).