Thematricesinwhichartifacts,ecofacts,sitesandotherhuman Anthropology100
September17th,2009
Section1:ArchaeologyWithProfessorWatts
ArchaeologicalDataandDating
ArchaeologicalRecord
manufacturedfeaturesorresultsofpasthumanactionsarefound.
ThreetypicalelementsofArchaeologicalResearch
Observedmaterialculture Unobservedhumanandnonhumanactivity:Cannotbedirectlyobserved, materialsourcesandmustbeinferred. InterpretationofHumanActivity:Wedonttrytoexplain,butinterpret.
MaterialEvidence
Physical:Materialdimension.Canbeheldandobserved Artifacts:AnyPortableobjectwhoseformhasbeenshaped(manufactured,modified) bywayofhumanactivity.Ex.HandAxe,CeramicVessel,FuneraryMask
Ecofacts:Nonartificialmaterialevidenceofhumanactivity.Canbefurthersubdivided into;
Macrofossils:Visibletothenakedeye,typicallyplantmaterials.Canberetrieved throughflotationornormalexcavationprocesses.Ex.Corninharvestedandprocessed thecarbonized. MicroFossils:Visibleonlyunderhighpowermagnification,200xorgreater. E.gpollen,phytoliths;canberetrievedthroughflotationonly.Ex.Perhapsadheredto potsorstonetoolsetc.
Features:NonPortablematerialevidenceofhumanactivity(ex.Hearths,Storage pits,postholes.)Ex.Pyramids
Spatial:Nophysicalquality. ActivityAreas Sites Regions
ArchaeologicalSite
Canbedefinedinanumberofways Usuallyconsistsifacollectionofactivityareascontaininganyofthe following Artifacts Ecofacts Features Spatiallydefinedareaswhereonecanfindremnantsofpasthuman activity.Canbecollectedintoonegrouporinseveralgroups
Provenience(Provenance) Physicallocationinthreedimensionalspace SiteLevel:EmployaGridSystemfortheactualsite RegionalLevel:Mapcoordinatesandsettlementfeatures(e.g.Roads, Towns) SiteformationProcesses Affectedby: NatureoftheArtifacts:Whatweretheyusedfor?whatweretheymadeof?
HumanAgencies:Whereweretheyused?Actionsofthehumans.Actionsthatledto thecreationoftheartifacts. NaturalAgencies:Naturaldisturbancesthatcanaidpreservationorruinit. ex.Soilcomposition,environments,temperature,disturbancebyanimals (taphonomicprocesses)
FindingArchaeologicalSites FieldMethods SurfaceTechniques FieldWalking:usedtosurveyploughedareas(veryefficient)(common)Can coverahugeamountofgroundinarelativelyshorttime. Testpitting:Usedtosurveyareasthatcannotbeexaminedbyothermethods.Go throughtheareaanddigsmalltestpitseverysooftenandthenstrainingthe contents.(Notasefficient) Aerialphotography,satelliteimaging:Agreattoolforfindingsites,oridentifying areasofhighpotential.Workswellwhentherearelargescalelandscape features. RemoteSensing:Measurestheresistanceofthegroundtoanelectricalcurrent. Currentpassesmorequicklythroughwetgroundthandryground.Basedonhow quicklythecurrentpassesyoucanfindoutiftherearepitsorpiecesof foundationunderthesoil.(fairlyeasy) Remotesensing(Magnetometry):Measuresmagneticfieldsbelowtheearths surface.Somearchaeologicalfeatures(e.g.buildingmaterialswithiron,hearthevents) havetheirownmagneticfields. Remotesensing(GroundPenetratingRadar)(GPR):Useslowenergyradiowavesto detectsubsurfacefeatures. Thestrongerthebounce,thebiggertheobjectorfeature. Thelongerittakesfortheradartoreturn,thedeepertheobjectorfeature. Onlymethodtoprovidedataalongverticalaxisofsoilmatrix. (possiblymostcommon) SurfaceTechniques
Benefitsofremotesensing
Costeffective,efficientandaccurate Nondestructiveandnoninvasive Devicesarerelativelyportable Onsiterealtimedatadisplay
SubsurfaceTechniques
Excavation:Recoveringarchaeologicaldata.Normallybeginswithassurface collection(ifasiteofploughedordisturbed).Followedbytheplacementofa datumandgrid.Theneverythingfoundisrecordedinconjunctiontothedistance fromthedatumonthegrid. Whenexcavating,werecordsubsurfacefeaturesandthelocationofartifactsina similarfashion.Withreferencetoagridsystem(basedonCartesiancoordinatesxand yaxis)
SurfaceCollection:Thespatialdistributionofartifactsonthesurfaceofasiteis recordedwithreferencetoafixedpoint(datum).Thisprovidesaccuratemaps,which canthenbeusedtoguidetheexcavation.
TypesofExcavations
Openarea,arealorhorizontalexcavations:Uncoverandremovelayers(strata)from youngesttooldest,simultaneously,acrossawidearea.
GridandBaulkorVerticalexcavations:(akagridandbaulkmethod)arefocusedona singlesmallportiononthesite.UnitsseparatedbyBaulks Note:Anumberofsitesarefoundbyaccident! ProcessingSoilatSite Screen Considerations:aperturesizeofmesh
Excavation(contd) Stratigraphy:Theanalyticalprocessbywhichweorderlayersand featureschronologically. BasedontheLawonSuperposition Strata:Layersofculturesandtimes,fromYoungest(top)toOldest(bottom) LawofSuperposition:ThatSedimentsaredepositedontopofpreexistingsediments. DatingTechniques Stratigraphyisarelativedatingmethod Levels(andbyextension,theartifacts,ecofacts,andfeaturescontainedin them)canbeorderedthroughtimebasedontheirStratigraphicPosition. ThereareothermethodsknownasAbsolutedatingmethods
Dendrochronology:Treeringdatingofpreservedwood.Chronologiesbasedon overlappingringsequences.
*Limitations:CannotbeusedinTropicalRegions,Confinedtocertaintreespecies.
RadiocarbonDating(C14):Radioactiveisotopeorvarietyofcarbonwhichformsinthe atmosphere.
Absorbedbyplantsduringphotosynthesis. Absorbedbyanimalswhentheyeatplants. AfterdeathC14decaysataknownrateitsHalfLife 5730+/_40years TwoForms: Conventional:Measuresrateofdecayperunitoftime.Cheap,notsensitive,and requiresalargeamountofmaterial(10500g)
AMSdating:directcountingofCarbonatoms.Moreexpensive,butmoreaccurate. Smallersamples<100g.FewerLabs.
PotassiumArgonDating: ThermoluminescenceDating: September24th,2009
AnalysisandInterpretation
DataProcessing(Firststepafterexcavation) Cleaning [Conservation] Mayormaynotbenecessary:dependsofartifactclass PerishableobjectsintheArcticarepreserveduntiltheyleavethegroundso theymushbeconserved. Pottery,toolsetcnotsomuch. Cataloguing Waytokeeptrackofeachpieceandwhatcategoryitfallsinto.
DataOrganization(SecondStep/LastStepbeforeanalysis)
InvolvesClassification
Processbywhichweassignitemstocategories(classes)inaprearranged system. Rulesdeterminewhetheranitembelongsordoesnotbelongtoaclass Onepopularmethodofclassificationandanalysisinmaterialculturalis throughtheuseofatypology Typology:classificationofanartifactsStatesbasedonsomecriterionor criteria Popularamongceramicists.Astheirmediumshaveanextremelylarge amountofdifferencesandstyles. Question:Wheretheartifacttypeswerecognizetodayalsorecognizedby theirmanufacturers? Inotherwords,aretheyemicoreticinnature? Emic:insidersviewofculture;thetypewasrecognizedbyitsmanufacturer asmeaningful. Etic:outsidersViewofculture;thetypeisonlymeaningfultotheanalyst. Typically,wedistinguishbetween Artifacts,whichincludeitemsmadefrom: Stone(Lithics) Clay(Ceramics) Metal Bone(Fractal),and Plants(ex.Baskets,woodentools,textiles)
And Ecofactswhichinclude Faunalremains:animalbonesnotusedastools Floralremains:Plantmaterialsnotusedastools. LithictoolsDisplayevidenceofreduction Canfurtherbedividedto Chippedstone/flakestonetools Groundstonetools
*FlakedLithicTools Flintknappingoneofearliestindustrialarts Emergedwithhomohabilissome2,5m.y.a Involvesremovingflakesfromcoresinacontrolledmanner Core:Theblockofrawmaterialfromwhichflakesarestruck Flaketherelativelythinfragmentoflithicmaterialremovedfromthecore Debitage:Thebyproductsofcorereduction;includesflakesandexhausted cores. Groundstonetools Producedbypecking,abradingandpolishingmacrocrystallinematerials Usuallyhavesmoothdurableedgesandsurfaces(e.g.axes,adzes,mortars andpestles) Decorativeitemscanalsobemadefromgroundstone. Analysis(Artifacts) FractureMechanicsandFlakeAttributes HardHammerPercussion:Basicprinciplebehindflintknapping.Certain amountofforcemustbeappliedatanangleoflessthan90*onasurfacethatis lessthan90*
Ceramics
Relativelyrecentinvention,ca.last12,000years Madefromthemixtureofclay,water,andtemper(bondingagentssuchas sandorshell),whichisfired. Temperhelpstoreduceshrinkageandcrackingwhentheobjectisfired
Ceramicformingmethods
Canbedividedintothefollowing: Handforming(e.g.pinch,coilconstruction) Molding WheelThrowing HandForming(Earliestandeasiestformofthisart)
Kneadclayandtempertogether Rollintoblobs PinchoutbaseandBeginningofsides(Pinchpot) Makecoilsofclayandcoilupontopofbase Compressandsmoothsides Dryinsun Buildlargefire Waituntilfireismostlyashandcharcoalandpreheatpotsbesidehearth Putpotsinsidefirebed SetupFireagainandmakelarge Diedownfireandremovepots SpatialAnalysis AlsoknownasSettlementArchaeology Interpretingthespatialdistributionsofartifacts,features,sites,etc.inaneffort toreconstructpasthumanaction. ImportanceofEthoarchaeologymodeling Observingcontemporaryculture/peoplesoastounderstandpasthumanaction Combiningthisconceptwiththeaforementioneddatayoucangetaverycloseideaof pasthumanaction. GIS(GeographicalInformationSystems) Mostpopulartooltodayforgettingatspatialpatterns Computerbasedsystemfortheinput,analysis,managementandoutput ofgeoreferencedspatialdata. Canperformsophisticatedmultivariateanalyses. Canlocatesites(orpotentialsites)usingaGISgivencertainanthropologicaldata ReconstructingSocialSystems(Howaresocietiesorganized?) Twointerrelatedquestions Whatwasthesizeorscaleofthesociety? Wasitautonomous(Groupsexistoftheirown)orinterdependent(interwoven withotherdifferentsocieties?
Howwasitorganizedinternally? Howdidtheydealwithissuesofstatus,gender,ethnicity,agency,etc?
Size/Scale OnepopularmodelService(1962) Band Tribe Chiefdom State Problems:Unilingular;pigionholes Bands Tribes Largerthanbands(~10002000people) Some(kinbased)ranking;pantribalsodalities Sodalities:aceremonial,politicaloreconomicassociation;oftenbasedon ageandsex.Ex.Warriorclans,clubs,andfraternalorganizations. GreaterSedentismfarming,herding Somewarfare(raiding) ArchaeologicalExample:Neolithicsocieties;Iroquois Chiefdoms Largerthantribes(~500020,000+people) Kinbasedrankingunderhereditaryleader Economybasedontribute/redistribution Settlementcentresecularandsacred ArchaeologicalExample:NorthWestCoast,Mississippian. States(preindustrial) Smallscale(<100people) Egalitarian:informalleadership Tendtobehighlymobiletemporarycamps OldestformofSocialorganization ArchaeologicalExample:allPaleolithicSocieties.
Largerthanchiefdoms(generally20,000+people) Classbasedhierarchyunderking/emperor Laws,bureaucracy(taxation),standingarmy Citiespalaces,temples,publicbuildings ArchaeologicalExample:AllAncientcivilizations.
October1st,2009
BecomingHuman
Around22.5yearsagothefirstsignofhumanchangebeginsinhomo hablis Thefirsttypethoughttohaveusedtools. Significantlylargercranialcapacity HomoErectus Frirsttoutilizefore FirsttoleaveAfrica HomoNeanderthalensis HomoSapienSapien
CulturalChronology
LowerPaleolithic2.5myato300kya(thousandyearsago) H.hablis(Oldowan<ToolTradition):H.erectus(Acheulian<Tool tradition) MiddlePaleolithic300kyato40,000ya Neanderthals(Mousterian
UpperPaleolithic40,000ya14,000ya H.Sapiens
HomoHablis
HandyPerson:assumedToolmakingabilities Pebblechoppers,Simple,crudetools. Decreaseinpragmatism;higher,roundercranium,lessjuttingjawand face. Increaseincranialcapacity:600700CC Thoughttocorrelatewithcapacitytomakestonetool,betterexploit landscape. OldivaiGorgeFirstfoundhomohablisinthe60saswellastools. TypesofHomoHablistools PercussionFlaking Pebblechoppers Usefulforcutting/choppingtasks HomoErectus Transitiontomoreadvancedhominiumforms,i.e.H.erectusca.1.9mya FirsttouseFore CA.2.5MYA,SWARTKINS(SOUTHAFRICA) FirsttoleaveAfrica Adaptedtoanumberofenvironments(e.gEurope;SEAsiaby1.8Mya!) TheAcheulianTradition OldowanntechnologygiveswaytoAcheulianby1.5mya;lastuntilca. 60,000BP Africa,WesternEuropeandSWAsia Choppers,flaketools,cleaversandHandaxes >RegionalVariability
AcheulianHandAxe Preparedcoretechnology Evidenceofskill(knappingskills_
Symmetryaroundalongaxes Cognitivedevelopment Bifaciallywork,multipurposetools, Woodworking.butchery,skins, Neanderthals Contentioushominindesign Emergeac.250kya:lastuntilroughly30kya FlourishedinEurope(particularrullywesternEurope)AndSWAsia Subjectofridicule
TheMousterian NamegiventostonetooltechnologyofEurAisabetween300kay30kya AssociatedwithNeanderthalsafter150kya AHallmarkoftheMousterianisuseofthelevalloismethod.(aprepared coretechnology) NeanderthalBurialPractices Evidenceofaltruismandintentionality E.gShanidarcave,NEIraq Nineskeletons(Shanidar19) Shanidar1Nandy Sufferedfromnumerousperimortemfractures,nervedamagetothearm =notabletohunt. Thedamagehealedbeforedeath.Thereforethetribetookcareofhim. Shanidar4theflowerburial Includedmassesofpollenfrom8flowerspecies Intentionalandpurposefulburial.Notseenbefore ModernHumanOrigins Modernhumans(H.sapienssapiens)emergebetween200and100kya Thrivedinspiteof(orattheexpenseof)TheNeanderthals. EarliestevidenceisfromAfrica NewToolkitsbasedonantler,boneandwood.
NotavailabletoNeanderthals(orusedbyNeanderthals) Hugetechnologicalleaps
DevelopmentofAurignaciantooltraditionafter35kya Includesbladetoolsandburins Emergenceofindirectpercussionandpressureflakingtechniques
EX.1PoundofFlint= 3inchesofcuttingsurface(onepebblecutter)Homohabilis 12inchesofcuttingsurface(2axes)Homoerectus 30inchesofcuttingsurface(lessthan10knives)Neanderthals 30feetofcuttingsurface(morethan10knives)HomoSapiens Bladetechnology Ofteninvolved: Indirectpercussion/punchtechnique:Thereisanintermediarypiecebetweenthe flintandthestrikingstone.Bettercontrol. Pressureflaking/retouch:Ifthetoolisnotsharpenoughyoucansharpenitbytaking averysmallimplementlikeboneoramberandfashiontheendtobesharp.Thenuse thesharpendtobendandbreakofflittlepiecestomaketheedgesharper. Characteristics:longandnarrow,parallelsides Increasedefficiency,decreasedwaste Bladetechnologygivespeoplethefreedomtorangefartherawayfromthetoolstone source Aburinisachiselliketoolusedtocut,inciseandshapematerialslikebone,antler andwood Itwasoftenmadeonaflake(orblade) Alsodeveloped:theAtlatlorspearthrower Leverusedtopropelaspear Greateraccuracy,thrustanddistance Attachedtothespearwithaboneorantlerhook
CroMagnons Anatomicallyindistinguishablefromourselves,butdistinguishablefrom Neanderthals SettlesinSEandcentralEuropeby40kya;SWFranceby35kya Byabout30,000yatherewasnoevidenceofNeanderthals CroMagnoninEurasia After18kya,increaseinmovementtotheopensteppeandtundraplainsof northernEurasia ArchaeologicalevidenceDolnoVestonice(Czechrepb.) Complexofdomeshapedhouses Madefrommammothskulls,jawsandlimbbones,5macross Hidesandsodusedascovering Subterraneanentranceways
FinishEssayOverviewbyThursdayOctober9th,2009 October8th,2009 CroMagnonArt Distribution Distribution:MortAfricatoSiberia MajorconcentrationsinSWFrance,NorthernSpain,Central/Eastern Europe. Types: Parietal(Cave) OpenAir(Petroglyphs)Veryrare! Mobiliary(Portable) MobiliaryArt ManydifferentMediaE.G:Clay,wood,bone/antler,Amber,softstoneonlya smallportionofwhichsurvivestoday
EngravedAntler,BoneandIvory Objectsoftenintricatelycraved VenusFigurinesOneclassthatiswidespreadandenigmatic Fertilitycult? ParietalArt Engravedandpaintedanimals Bison,horse,wildboar,ibexarecommon Humans,handsandgeometricshapeslesscommonlymade Ochre,hematite,charcoalusedaspigments Mostfamoussite:Lascaux(SWFrance,Dordogne) Horses,bulls,andibexmostcommondepictions Interpretations HenriBreuilHuntingMagic DavidLewisWillamsWorkofShamans ChantalJeguesWolkiewiezAbstractimagesasstarcharts (petroglyph):CoaValleyArchaeologicalPark(documentary) OnlyplacetohavePetroglyphs(engravingsinrock) UNESCOworldheritagesiteinNEPortugal Thousandsofopenairengravings(petroglyphs) >Horses,Ibex,human,andabstractfigures.Anthromorphicfigures Discoveredinthelate1980s
Colonization:Australia
ColonizationofAustraliabyatleast40KYA,definitelywithuseofwatercraft. WillandraLakesRegion(SEAustraliaNSW) Evidenceofhumansettlementb/w37and26kya;shellmiddensand campsites.
TheFirstAmericans
SomedebateastowhenpeoplefirstarrivedintheAmericas Arch.Evidencelikelyca.15kya;passagesouthby14kya Beringia(LandmasslinkingNEAsiawithAlaska
>NowtheBeringSea Trackingmigratingherdsofcaribou?
Paleoindians
Datedtobetween14and8kya FamousforflutedpointtechnologyknownasClovis Originallyassociatedwithbiggamehunting,nowbelievedtheyalsotookbisonand caribou,fishandseamammals Opportunisticandverymobile;settledofadiversearrayofenvironments. EarlySite:MonteVerde(Chile) Definitelyoccupiedby14kya;mayhavebeenoccupiedasearlyas31kya Goodpreservationofboneandwoodenartifacts;woodenhousescovered withhides Emphasisonplantfoods(e.g.Potato) ComponentsofthepaleoindiankitthatisneverseeninNorthAmericadue topreservationissues.
AfterthePaleolithic
Betweenca.20and14kya,weseethefollowingchanges Glaciersretreat/sealevelsrise Temperaturesincrease Humidityincreases SomePlantandAnimalSpecies(e.g.megafundaintheAmericas) disappear.
AfterthePleistocene
ManygroupsadaptedbyBroadeningtheirresourcebases e.g.Mesolithic(MiddleStoneAge,PostPaleolithic)groupsinEurope, NearEast Increaseduseoffish,shellfish,smallmammals,seedsandnuts.
Later,peoplebegantointensifytheirexploitationofcertainresources E.g.8kyaBCintheNearEast(SWAsia) E.g.7kyaisMesoamerica Result:populationsincreasedinsize,greaterdegreesofsedentism
Soon,groupsbeganselectivelyexploitingsomeplantandanimalspecies >Corn,beans,gourds,sheep,etc. ThismarksthetransitionfromFoodcollectiontoFoodproduction
OriginsandconsequencesofFoodProduction
WhatisFoodProduction? Systematicinterferencewithafoodsupply Increaseinenergy(extractmoreenergyfromfood),butinsomecases lessland Foodproductionallowedpeopletoexploitgreaterenergyreturnwith smallersachetsofland. TwointeractiveProcesses Changesinplantandanimalphysiology ChangesinHumanLifeways Systemicinterferenceinplants Seedsbecomelarger Higheryieldperunitofarea Lossofnaturalseeddispersalmechanisms;tougherRachis(Spineused toholdseedstobroadersteminplants)inwheat,barleyandcorn Cropharvestedmoresuccessfully. Selectivegrowthofplantsinordertocreategreatestyieldandvarietyof food. Definitions:Horticulture,AgricultureandPastoralism Dependenceoncultivationand/oranimalhusbandryforamajorityofdiet. Horticulture Cultivationofplantswithsimple(hand)tools Minimalinterferencewithlandandwater
Minimalanimalhusbandry Agriculture Draftanimals Fertilization Irrigation Pastoralism DependenceonAnimalHusbandryforsurvival ChangesinHumanLifeways HarvestingNewTools MicroBlade,Sythe,Shovels ProcessingNewTools MortarandPestle StorageContainerRevolution Pottery Stockpilingfoodforleanermonths ChangesinHumanLifeways(Social) Organizationoflabour LeadershipandCoordination Sedentismdifferentialaccesstoresources VillagesPoliticalandeconomicautonomy Largerareasareneededforpeoples Authoritybecomesboundupinsocialandpoliticalareasofthevillages Important:Noonepersoninventedagriculture Complicatedsetofprocesses Subjectofnumeroustheories/models Enviormentalchange(OasisModel:Childe1952) IncreasedaridityinSWAsiaatcloseofPleistocene Humansandanimalssoughtoutoaseswhereplantthrived Humansnaturallytendtotheseresources Braidwood
IncreasedSpecialization:NuclearZoneorHillyFlanks;Model(Braidwood1973) Uplandareaswerehometowildancestorsofdomesticates o Notlowlandoases Groupsbecameproficientatexploitingtheseresources Begantoexperimentandmanipulateplantsandanimals. SedentismandPop.Increase MarginalZoneorBifordFlanneryModel SocialpressuretoGenerateSurplusses(Bender1978) Changesinsocialsystemsrequiredmoreintensiveproduction Neededtofulfillsocialandpoliticalobligations(e.g.payingoftribute) October15,2009 TheArchaeologyofComplexity
EarlyFoodProduction
WithfoodproductioncomesatransitiontotheNeolithicPeriodca.8,0005,000BC inmuchofEurasiaandAfrica FirstseenamongsettlementsintheFertileCrescent(Levant,SETurkey,Iraq,SW IranNiletothePersianGulf) PrimaryOrigins:(EarliesttoLatest) (Around8kyaBC)SWAsia,(7kya)Mesoamerica,(7kya)SouthAmerica, SouthChina,NorthChina,Africa,(4kya)NorthAmerica
FirsttypesofGrownPlantlife: Maize,Bean,Limabeans,Wheat,oats,barley,lentils,peas,gourds,water chestnut,squash,sunflower,chenopod. ManyoftheAncientHighCivilizationscorrespondwithMaincentresofPrimary fooddomestication
Mesopotamiaca.3200BC NileValleyca.3000 NorthChinaca.2000BC Mesoamerica1500BC SouthAmericaca.1500BC
WhatisComplexSociety?
Typicallythereareindicators Acomplexofculturalphenomena(Flannery1972)Suchas: Writing Metallurgy PredictiveSciences(e.g.astronomy,mathematics) Largepop.Aggregates;urbanization Socialstratification Occupationalspecialization Monumentalarchitecture Importantly,notalloftheseindicatorsarepresentinallancientcivilizations E.g.nowritinginAncientSouthAmerica(Peru) Quipo:SeriesofstringswithknotsusedtorecordtransactionsinPeru. E.g.littleevidenceforostentatiousdisplayofpowerinHarrapan(Indus Valley)civilization.
IndicatorsWriting
Mostearlywritingtooktheformoconventionalizedandabstractpictoralforms TheLetterAforexampleisthoughttobedescendedfromaSemiticstylizeddrawing oftheheadofanOx.
LaterdevelopmentsinvolveSyllabic/Alphabeticsystems Syllabic:Writtensymbolforeachsyllable(e.g.cuneiform(Mesopotamia andhieroglyphics(Egypt) Alphabetic:writtensymbolforeachvowelandconsonant(e.g.Greek alphabet=22symbols;Roman(Latin)alphabet=21symbols)
IndicatorsMetallurgy
Earlymetalworking(Copper/Bronze/IronAges)ca.4000600BCinEurope Balkansca.4000BCCopper(hammered)[Axes,ornamentsandother itemstradedoverawidearea] ItalyandIberiaca.3000BCCopperSmelting CzechRepublicca.2500BCBronze(Alloy) BronzespreadrapidlythroughoutEuropeca.17001300BC ExchangenetworksfacilitatedthespreadofIronworkingtechniquesafter1000BC Weapons,utilitarianobjects Moredifficulttosmelt,butironoreismorewidelyavailable. Allowsforthespreadoffarmingintoareaswithhardergroundlesseasily plowed
IndicatorsPredictiveScience
Astronomy,e.g.BronzeAgeEurope Megalithictombsandhengemonuments Ex.NewGrangeinIreland,ca.3200BC DuringtheWinterSolsticetherisingsunslightshinedirectlyintothetomb Ex.StonehengeinEngland,ca.28001100BC Stonehenge:AlignmentfortheSummerSolsticerisingsun,castshadow intothestructurefromtheheelstone. Situatedwithinabroaderlandscape Wentthroughaseriesofphasesofconstruction.Asthephases progressedovertime,theusesprobablychangedtoo. Ex.Burials,Processions,Healing,etc.
IndicatorsUrbanism
Notsimplyaproductofincreasedsettlementssizebutalsodensity. Articulateswithhighdegreeofsocialstratification Emergenceofanelitesectionofsocietyandpeopletendtocongregate
nearthem. Newsettlementfeatures Relationbetweene.g.avenues,houses,roadsetc. SiteofTeotihuacan(ca.200BCAD750)HighlandMesoamerica Ca.40kmNEofMexicoCity;30km2 150,000+inhabitantsafterAD200 Significanturbanplanningandmonumentalarchitecture - StreetoftheDead(FocalNSAxis) - 600pyramids - 500Workshops - Greatmarketplaceandotherplazas. Alsoinvolves Organizationoftheproductivehinterland Replacementifmoreorlessequallysizedcommunitieswith,
IndicatorsOccupationalSpecialization
Consumerandproducershavedifferentskillsets,maynolongerknowoneanother, oroccupythesamesettlements Groupsofpeoplethatspecializeintheproductionofcertainthings;truecraftsmen. AlmostallHighCivilizationshadCraftspeople Increaseintradeandexchange
IndicatorsMonumentalArchitectureandWorks
Canreflecteconomic,socialandpoliticaldifferentiationwithinthesociety Suedtosendmessages(usuallyofpower):i.e.Pyramids,Statues, Sphinxes,thehomeofMukeshAmbaniinMumbai.
DifferentiationnotablyabsentinHarappan(IndusValley)Civilization EasternPakistan/westernIndia VillageSettlementstetheredtoriverbyca.3000BC;widespreadirrigation
by2500BC.
HarappanCivilization
Mohenjodaro Firstconstructedca.2600BC;rebuilt9times MajorAdmin.Centre;pop.35,000+ TwoParts:CitadelandLowerCity(largelyunexcavated) Citadel:Elevated,fortified,public/privatebaths,housing.Pillaredassembly hall(courts),Granary. Leadership LackofPompandostentatiousdisplayofpower Lackofdifferentialmortuarypractices Equitabledistributionofwealth Employsundecipheredlanguage.
ThePresentandFuturePast Museumpracticeshavechangedovertheyears;fromLootingtorealArchaeology.
Ethics
Majorshiftinpractices Sitesandartifactsnowseenasfiniteresources Needtoobeylegislation;registerallsites NeedtobemindfulofFirstPeoplesconcerns(inpostcolonialcontexts), particularlywithrespecttoburialsites. AnotherShift BuildingBridgesorpartnershipswithFirstPeoples Repatriationofhumanremains(e.g.NAGPRA[1990]) RecognizingFirstPeoplesinterestsandconcernsarenotalways compatiblewithours.
Legislation
Differsintermsifscope,powers,etc.butmostpiecesaddressthefollowing concerns.
DefinitionofHeritage Responsibilities ProtectiveMeasuresandEnforcement
CareersinArchaeology
Attheundergraduatelevel(BA,BSc) 4years EnrollInabroadrangeofcourses Getexperienceinthefieldorlab Develop Graduatelevel(MA,MSc) 12years Courseworkandtypicallyathesis Qualifiesyoutoworkas: AprincipleinvestigatorinaCRMfirmetc.
SECTION2:BIOLOGICALANTHROPOLOGY OfficeHoursTues:2:003:00pmAP404
EvolutionaryAnthropology:Applicationofmodernevolutionarytheorytostudiesof morphology,ecology,andbehaviorofhumanandnonhumanprimates. Primatology: Scientificstudyofnonhumanprimates Researchtopicsrangefromdescriptionofprimateanatomythroughfieldstudiesof wildanimalstoinvestigationofprimatepsychology
WITH:ProfessorLehman
Paleoanthropology: Multidisciplinarystudyof: biologicalevolutionandnonhumanprimates Adventofandchangesinhumanculturalactivities HumanVariation Spatialandtemporalvariationsinhumanfeatures. Forexample,geographicvariationsonbodysize,skincolor,andeyecolor. MedicalAnthropology Howsocial,environmentalandbiologicalfactorsinfluencehealthandillnessof individualsatthecommunity,regional,national,andgloballevels ForensicAnthropology Focusesonlyonskeletalremainofhumans Forensicanthropologistsseekstodeterminetheage,sexetc.ofbones. MajorQuestions: Howdoesevolutionworkandhowdoesitapplytous? Whatarethebiologicalcharacteristicsofourspecies? Whatisphysicalrecordofourevolution? Andhowdoweseethisinfossils? EvolutionaryAnthropologygroundedinScientificMethod: Statetheproblem Gatherinformation Formthehypothesis Testhypothesis Recordandanalyzedata Stateconclusion Repeatwork CarolusLinnaeus (KarlvonLynn,17071778) >1stcomparativeclassificationsystemforlivingthings >Eachplantandanimalwasnamedasaseparatespecies Onbasisofphysicalresemblances,specieswerecategorized.
CreatedBionomialNomenclature: Firstletterofthegenusiscapatilizedlikeso:Homo SpeciesdesignationsarealwaysLowercase:sapien LinnaeusNOTanevolutionist ScalaNaturaeorNaturesLadder SomethingswereclosertoGodthanothers. October23rd4004BCThoughtthatEarthwascreatedonthisdate Believedindivinecreation:FixityofSpecies Thingsareunchanging GeorgesLouisLecleric:ComtedeBuffon(17071788) Earthshistorylongerthanbiblical6000years(ca.75,000years).Majorissuewith contemporaryreligiousauthorities! Foundedbiogeographybynotingthatdespitesimilarenvironments,differentregions havedistinctplantsandanimals. JeanBaptisteLamark,(17441829) Inheritanceofacquiredcharacteristics:vitalforceswithincreaturestohelpthem adapttoenvironments. Acquiredtraits:developedthroughuseordisusepassedontogenerations CharlesDarwin,(18091882) NaturalistonH.M.S.beagle,scientificexpeditiontoPacificcoastofSouthAmerica (almostdidntgetthejobbecauseCapt.Didntliketheshapeofhisnose)
Observedincrediblevarietyoflivingandespeciallyfossilizedcreatures Conclusion:NOfixityofspeciesandnotiononshort,catastrophicgeologicalhistory forearthmustbeincorrect.Earthmustbeimmenselyold.Incrediblediversityoflife
VariationImportantinEvolution
Darwinunderstoodthatwithinanypopulationoforganismsthereisconsiderable physicalvariety Ifvarietyprovidesadvantagetocertainmembersofpopulation,theninindividuals
mayproducemoreoffspring Theseoffspringinheritbeneficialvariations,sotheywouldinturnproducemore offspring,untilvariationbecamenormofpopulation.Populationwouldchange,perhaps enoughtobecompletelynewanddifferentspecies. Verycarefulgiventhatthesethoughtswereheresyinthosedays. KeycamefromEssayontheprincipleofpopulationsbyeconomistThomasMalthus (17661834).Manymoreorganismsarebornthancanpossiblysurvive. DARWIN:individualsinspeciesadapttoenvironmentsandlongtermadaptionmean evolutionaryshiftinresponsetoenvironmentalchange.
DarwinstheoryonNaturalSelection
Allextantandextinctspeciesshareacommonancestry Speciesevolvebynaturalselection
NaturalSelection:Aprocessinnatureresultinginsurvivalandperpetuationof onlythoseformsoflifehavingcertainfavorablecharacteristicsthatenablesthem toadaptbesttotheirenvironments.(Whomakesthemostbabies?)
Weareinfluencedbynaturalselectioninmanydifferentthings (I.e.howwereactinexamtime) AlfredRussellWallace,(18231913) WallacewritesDarwinfromMalaysia Wallacehastheoryofhowspeciesmightevolve.Darwinshocked;Wallacedescribed theoryofnaturalselectionthatDarwinhadbeenresearchingfor20years. WallacesshortsketchisfarfrommassivebodyofevidenceDarwinhadcollected, butitscoreideasweresimilar. DarwinWritethebookTheoriginofspeciescompleteandfullyillustrated ThreepostulatesofDarwinianEvolution 1) StruggleforExistence:Morethingsthanpopulationcansupport 2) VariationinFitness:Somespecieshavetraitsthathelpthemto reproducebetter 3) InheritanceofVariation:Thesevariationsmustbeinheritable.
WhatDidntDarwinSay? Darwinhimselfavoidedimplicationsofgeneralprogressorofdirectionality ThewordevolutiondoesnotappearinthefirsteditionofOriginsofSpecies Hisnextbookisentitled:TheDescentofManandSelectioninRelationtoSexand NOTHumanEvolution Thereareorganismsinwhichindividualsactinawaythatdonotalwaysactin accordancetotheirenvironment.AlltheMalehastodoisMate;thefemalesmustbirth babiesandraisethem. Femalesarethechoosysex.Theychoosematesforbettergeneticvariation. (RememberprofessorLehmansDance) Darwindidnotknowaboutsexualselection,buthepredicted. WhydoesntEvolutionResultinGeneralIncreaseofFitnessofLifeinExternal World? Reason:Environmentsinwhichparticularspecieslivearethemselveschanging Relativetotheorganisms,environmentsareusuallygettingworse.Dar Mostofnaturalselectionisconcernedwithkeepingup.Buteveryspecieseventually becomesextinct. Youmustevolvejusttostayabreastwithenvironmentalchange. SurvivaloftheFittest ThisphrasewascoinedbyHerbertSpencerNOTCharlesDarwin,althoughat Wallacesurging,Darwindiduseitinlatereditionsofhisbook. Spencerproclaimedwronglythatastruggleforexistenceinhumansocietyleads,in effect,toitsevolution Hearguedagainstpolicies,suchascharities,thatmightinterferewithprocessof producingfitindividualsandinstitutions. Shouldntthinkoffitnessintermsofbrutality Examplescouldbethingslikeknowledge,compassion,collegiality,mercy,etc. Sneakystrategiescanhelp,butreprehensiblestrategiesarebad. CreationismandIntelligentDesign I.D.claimsnaturallawsandchancenotadequatetoexplainnaturalphenomena.
NeedGodtoexplainthings! I.D.scientistsnoempiricalresearchprogramandhavepublishednonewdatain peerreviewedjournals(orelsewhere)tosupportclaims Dr.B.Forrest(1999)noted,Atheart,proponentsof[I.D.]arenotmotivatedto improvedsciencebuttotransformitintoatheisticenterprisethatsupportsreligious faith NoScienceinanyAspectofCreationismorI.D. DarwinianEvolutionandInheritance MajorweaknessofDarwinianevolution:noexplanationonhowcharacteristic inherited Darwincouldnotexplainit. ThoughtthatGemulesmixedbutcouldnotproveit. GregorMendel(182284) PriestcaredforMonasterygardenandinterestedinpeaplants Whypeaplants? Inbred Hybrid Observabletraits Plantssmall Selffertilizing
Bredpeaplantsforjustonetrait(purestrains) Thenhematedthedifferentpurestrains=F1Generation CrossbredF1plantswitheachother=F2Generation Foundthe75%dominantgeneratio(3:1)withEVERYtrait MendelsConclusions Eachindividualplantmustcarrytocopiesofthefactorthatdeterminescoloror shape Iftheplantsbreedtrueitmustmeanthatthefactorswereidentical,otherwiseone willmasktheother. Published(1866)findingsraisedlittleinterest.
WhatreallyHappened? Mendelwasntreallysure. Nounderstandingofgeneticsatthattime Hisworkforgottenuntildiscoveryinearly1900s
October29th,2009 ThePrinciplesofEvolution
TheModernSynthesisofEvolution
Focusesonhowevolutionworksatthelevelofphenotypes,genesandpopulations. Microevolution Macroevolution
Genetics
SomaticCells:Mostcellsinbody Gametes Cytoplasm Nucleus:containschromosomes
Chromosomes
Pairedrodshapedstructuresincellnucleuscontaininggenesthattransmittraits fromgenerationtogeneration. MadeupentirelyofDNAwounduponitself
DNA
FourbasesAdenine(A),Guanine(G),Cytosine(C),Tyrosine(T) DeoxyribonucleicAcid. TyrosineandAdenine,CytosineandGuaninebothonlybondwitheachother Basisofproteinproduction
RNA
Dictatesynthesisofproteinsthatperformawidevarietyoffunctionsinthebody Regulateexpressionofothergenes Workwithstructuresincell(ribosomes)thatarecriticalformanufactureofproteins
Transportaminoacidstoribosomesforthecreationofproteins. EssentialAminoAcids:theonesthatwedonotcreatenaturally
Proteins
Linearsequencesofaminoacidsthatarebuildingblocksofcells EachproteinhasspecificfunctiondeterminedbyblueprintstoredinDNA E.g.:catalystsofallbiochemicalreactionsisdonebyenzymes,whichcontainprotein (digestion);andmanymore. Sometimestherearesideeffects,i.e.whenweprocesscaffeinewegetjitteryand laterdonotfeelbetter. Thereisarangeinwhichhumanscanfunction,whenwesurpassthatrangethere canbedamage.
Transcription
SynthesisofmRNAfromonesideofunzippedDNA. CarriesInformationthroughcytoplasmtoribosomes
Codons
Thegeneticcodeforanaminoacid;madeupof3nucleotides. FournucleotidesforRNA:(A),(C),(G),(U)Uracil(whichreplacesTyrosine)
Translation
tRNA(transferRNA)istheinformationadaptermolecule Directinterfacebetweenaminoacidsequenceofprotein&informationinmRNA. ThereforeitdecodesinformationinmRNA. Acceptorstemissitewherespecificaminoacidisattached;Anticodonreads informationinmRNAsequencebybasepairing.
GeneticsandHeredity
Gene:Chemicalunitofheredity Phenotype:Observablephysicalappearanceoforganism;mayormaynotreflect genotypeortotalgeneticconstitution Genotype:Thetotalcomplementofinheritedtraitsorgenesofanorganism Alleles:onememberofapairofgenes. Homozygous:Possessingtwoidenticalgenesorallelesincorrespondinglocations
onapairofchromosomes,EX.yy,andYY Heterozygous:Possessingtwodifferentalleles. DominantAlleles:Allelepairofgenepairthatisalwaysphenotypicallyexpressedin heterozygousform,Forexample:Yisalwaysexpressedphenotypicallywhenpaired withy. RecessiveAlleles:allelephenotypicallysuppressedinheterozygousformand expressedonlyinhomozygousform.Forexample:yisonlyexpressedphenotypically whenpairedwithy(yy);e.g.Mandibulartori
WhatactuallyhappenedinMendesF1xF1?
Phenotypically:ratio3yellowto1green Genotypically:Ratio1(YY):2(Yy):1(yy)or1:2:1
Myotony:retentionofchildlikequalitiesinanadult.
Mutation
Errorinanucleotidesequence Canbeneutral,harmful,or(very,veryrarely)beneficial Somaticcellmutations(notpassedtothenextgeneration) Germcellmutations(passedontooffspring) Thereareredundancysafeguardssoastoprotectagainstmutations.I.e.many differentcodingsforcodons. Ultimatesourceofnewgeneticmaterialsinpopulations Canhappenduetovirus,radiation,etc.
GeneticDrift
Randomchangesingenepoolovertime Threeimportantoutcomes 1) Reduceswithinpopulationgeneticvariation 2) Morelikelytoeffectsmallpopulations 3) Increasesbetweenpopulationgeneticvariation
PopulationGenetics:GeneFlow
Movementofgenesbetweenpopulations Twoimportantoutcomes: 1) Initially,increaseswithinpopulationgeneticvariation 2) Eventually,reducesbetweenpopulationgeneticvariation Canbeinhibitedby:
NaturalSelection
Anyconsistentdifferenceinfitnessamongphenotypicallydifferentbiologicalentities Deterministicprocessinvolvingdifferentialreproductivesuccess Actsonlyonexistingvariation TheCatchbiologicalevolutioncanoccurwithoutnaturalselection,andviceversa.
3ModesofSelection:
DirectionalSelection:Processfavoringeitherhigherorlowervaluesofcharacter, therebypromotingvariation StabilizingSelection:Averagephenotypeisfittest.Reducesvariation. DisruptiveSelection:Bothextremesoftraitarefavoured.IncreasesVariation.
Adaptation
ProcessandFeature Process:Changeinorganismenablingittobetterreproduceandsurvivein environment Feature:Characteristicthatperformsfunctionofutilitytoorganismpossessingit Duetonaturalselection,thathasnotbeencooptedtodosomethingelse.
CoolAdaptions:Parasites
Parasiticwaspslayeggsinsidehostsuchascaterpillar. EggschangeintoLarvae,whichgorgeinvariousfluidsandtissues;butdontkillthe host. Intime,larvaehatchfromhost.
Macroevolution
Largescalechangesorabovethespeciallevel Extendsofgeologicera Associatedwithresearchontheformationofnewtaxonomicgroups
Speciation
Evolutionaryprocessinvolvingtheformationofnewspecies About12modernspeciesdefinitions.Wefocusofbiologicalspeciesconceptand phylogeneticspeciesconcept Controversialandinteresting Adaptiveornonadaptiveprocess? Areintermediateformsneededinspeciation?
AllopatricSpeciation
Speciesformationthatoccursfollowinggeographicisolationofpopulations.Isolation inhermsoflimitedgeneflow. 1) Vicariant:Occurswhenaphysicalbarriercreateslarge,geographically separatedpopulations.Intime,populationsdivergeandcannolonger interbreed. 2) Peripatric:Occurswhensmallperipherallyisolatedcolonyofmain populationdivergestobecomenewspecies.
ModernEvolutionarySynthesis
Amoderntheoryofevolutionaryprocessesthatemphasizesthecombinesactionof rangefourmechanism 1) 2) 3) 4)
Cladistics
Randommutation NaturalSelection GeneticDrift Geneflow
Takinghumanbiasoutoftheevolutionaryquestion Asystemofbiologicaltaxonomybasedonthequantitativeanalysisofcomparative datathatisusedtoreconstructthe(assumed)phylogeneticrelationshipsad evolutionaryhistoryofgroupsoforganisms
ThreeMajorAssumptions 1) Therearechangesincharacteristicswithinlineagesovertime 2) Allorganismsaredescendedfromacommonancestor
3) Whenalineagesplits,itdividesintoexactlytwogroups Characteristicscanbeanythingaslongastheyhavebiologicalsignificance
Cladogram
Abranchingdiagramusedtoillustratephylogeneticrelationships.
TerminalNodes:Thebranchingpoints,andendings
Clade:Agroupoforganismsthatcontainsanancestraltaxonofallofits descendants.
Producehypotheses ResearchersarespecificallyinterestedinTreeTopology
3MisconceptionsaboutCladograms
1) Evolutionproducespatternsofrelationshipsamountorganismsthatare likeatreenoaladder. 2) Althoughcladogramsareoftenorganizedfromtoptobottom,dont assumethatthosetaxaonthetoparemoreadvancedthanthosetaxaon thebottom. 3) Avoidreadingacrosstheterminalnodes(tips),theorderofwhichhasno meaning;thus,youshouldlookattheinternalbranchingpatternsto understandevolutionaryrelationships.
November5th,2009
Primates
Primatesaremammals NOTPETSORACTORS Primatesdifferfrommostmammalsbyhaving: Graspinghandsandfeet Collarbone(clavicle) Radiusandulna(Bonesinforearmsthatstraightenandcrossaswemove ourarms)& Forwardfacingeyesandstereoscopicvision Reducedolfactoryareaofthebrain
PrimateActivityPatterns
Nocturnal:ActiveatNight Diurnal:Activeduringtheday Crepuscular:Activeatdawnanddusk Cathemeral:Activeanytimeofdayornight.
PrimateDiets
Frugivore:Dietoffruit Folivore:Leaves Insectivore:Insects Faunivore:Invertebratesandvertebrates Gummivore:Treeexudates Graminivore:Smallseedsandgrasses Omnivore:Varieddiets
PrimateTaxonomy Strepsirhime
Dentaltoothcomb Moistrhinarium(wetnose) Unfusedmandibular(Jawbones)andfrontalsymphases(reflectiveslideoneyes) [orange]
Tapetumlucidum
Postorbitalbar(Behindtheeyeorbit)[Bonesurroundingtheeyeballs] Twosuperfamilies:LemuroidaandLorisoidea
TwoStrepsirhimeSuperfamilies Lemuroida
MadagascarandComoroIslands
Aborealquadrupedsandleapers;somearepartiallyterrestrial Manysmallbodiedspeciesarenocturnal Femaledominance Varieddiet
Lorisoidea
FoundthroughoutsubSaharanAfricaandSoutheastAsia Lorisesandgalagos Aborealquadrupeds Nocturnal Varieddiet Lemurs: Tendtohavelongerhindlegsandshorterforelegswhichgivethemtheabilityto jump.Theyhavetodothesamewhenonground.
LemursEndemictoMadagascar
SpecifictoAntananarivoinMadagascar
LorisesandGalagos
Babiesarecoveredinmommyspittpreventthemfromgettingeaten(poisonousspit)
HaplorhineCharacteristics
Drynose RetinalFovea.(Gooddaysight,badnightsight) Fusedmandibularandfrontalsymphases
Tarsiiformes
OneGenus(Tarsius) FoundinSoutheastAsia(Philippines) Smallbodysize(8130g) Relativelylargeeyeswithfusedlowerlegbones EntirelyFaunivores
Platyrrhines(neotropicalmonkeys)
CentralandSouthAmerica Bodymass:110g11.4kg Cebidae,Atelidae,andCallitrichidae Prehensiletailinfewspecies Mostentirelyarboreal(LiveinTrees)
Catarrhines(OldWorldMonkeysandApes)
Africa,AsiaandSoutheastAsia Bodymass:1kg175kg.) Cercopithecidae,Hylobatidae,andHominidae Varietyofdiets,socialorganizations,andadaptions Gibbonsliveinmatedpairs SometimestheFemaleandMaleinapairwillcheatwithanotherGibbon
HumanBeings:Homosapiens
Humanscharacterizedby: 1) Habitual,upright,bipedalpostureandlocomotion 2) Useofforelimbalmostentirelyforemanipulation,carrying,&throwing; rarelyusedforlocomotion 3) Enormousexpansionofbrainvolumeinrelativetobodysize 4) Reductionoftheteeth,jaws,andhewingmuscles 5) Thinkinglemurs
BodySize
Scaling:Area(LxW)andVolume(LxWxD)changeatdifferentrates Animaldoublesinsizewillbeeighttimesheavier Smallanimalshavegreaterheat(energy)lossthanlargeranimals LittlePrimatesmustfindhighenergycompactfoodsources LittlePrimatescandieiftheyonlyeatsubstandardfood LargePrimatesmustworrymoreaboutthequantityoftheirfood Characteristicsofhumanevolutionisexpansionofbodyandbrain
PrimateHabitats
Tropicalrainforests,dryforests,deserts,andsavannas Primaryvs.secondaryforests EcologicalNiche ForestMicrohabitats EmergentLayer:TopofTrees Canopy:Leaves Understory:Undertheleaves
PrimateEvolutionaryEcology
Bottomupprocess
TopDownprocesses Seeddispersalandpollination Predationpressuresonprimates Plantdefensiveadaptions Physical Chemical
PrimateRangingStyles
DailyPathLength:Exploitedoveraday DayRange HomeRange:exploitedbyagroupofprimatesoverayear,notdefended Corearea:Areastheyliketobein Territory:Areadefendedbyanindividualoragroupofprimates
PrimateSociality
ComplexSociallives,including: Deception FemaleMatechoice Homosexuality KinRecognition Warfare Friendship
PrimateSocialGrooming
Moreaboutestablishingandmaintainingsocialbondsthanhygiene Alsousedtoreconcileconflict
PrimateDominanceHierarchies
Socialordersustainedby: Aggression Affiliation,or Otherbehaviorpatterns
PrimateSocialOrganization
Residencegroupcomposition
Matingsystems:Whomateswithwhom Foragingcoherence:Whoeatswithwhom PhilopatryType: Femalephilopatry:Malesleaveatsexualmaturity Malephilopatry:Femalesleaveatsexualmaturity
WhydoPrimatesliveinGroups?
Advantages: Improvedpredatorprotection Improvedaccesstofood Resourcedefense Increasedaccesstopotentialmates
Disadvantages: Increasedpredatorencounters MoreMouthstofeed Increasedtravel/foragingcosts(energy) Diseasetransmission
DiseaseTransmission:EbolainGorillasinAfrica
ZairestrainofEbolavirus(ZEBOV)inGabonandCongo Eachhumanoutbreakaccompaniedbyreportsofgorillaandchimpanzeecarcasses inneighboringforests In2002and2003,ZEBOVkilledabout5000gorillasinonestudyarea
PrimateConservation
HabitatDisturbance Logging AgricultureForestFragmentationHuntingpressures Subsistencevs.economic
PrimateConservation:BiologyandAnthropology
Ifyourmostcherishedandlovedpersonwasdyingonlyofhunger,wouldntyoudo justaboutanythingtosavehim/her?
Dontfallforlocalpeopleareproblem Mustrespectculture;findpracticalsolutionsINVOLVINGlocalpeople
November19th,2009
PrimateEvolution TimeFrameandClimate
MajorEpochsduringTertiaryPeriod
Paleocene[Primates]:Geographyandclimate.Verydifferentfrompresentday conditions,Hotter/Morehumid.AfricaandIndiawerefloatingaround.MostofEurope andNorthAmericawasunderwater.Almosttheentireworldslandwascoveredby forest,verymuchlikearainforest.
Plesiadapiformes(Paleoceneandprimatelikeanimals) BodySize:Tinyshrewlikesizetosizeofsmalldog Niche:Likelysolitary,nocturnalquadrupeds,welldevelopedsenseof smell Diet:Insectsandseeds Usedtobeclassifiedasprimatesbecauseofprimateliketeethandlimbs thatareadaptedforarboreallifestyle Recent:PlesiadapidsareNOTPrimates(usingPheneticanalysis) NoPostorbitalbar Clawsinsteadofnails Eyesplacedonsideofhead Enlargedincisors MoreRecent:PlesiadapidsandfewothersAREprimates(UsingCladistics)
Primatesmayhavebeenaroundwhenthedinosaurswalkedtheearth Eocene:55.8MYAto33.9MYA:AfricaandIndiaarebothstillfloatinginthesea. MostofEuropeisstillunderwater.Temperaturesstarttodrop.Oceansshrink,Things die.
TwomainEocenePrimateFamilies: Adapidae: Bodysize:100gto6900g Diurnalandnocturnalforms
Mainlyarborealquadrupeds,somemayhavebeenspecialized leapers Smalleradapidsatemostlyfruitandinsects;largerformsatemore fruitandLeaves Ledtolemurs?? Omomyidae: - Bodysizeof45gto2500g - Somenocturnal,othersdiurnal - Omomyidsthoughttohavebeenspecializedleapers - Hindlimbsarelongerthantheirfrontarms - Teeth:adaptedforeatinginsectsandsoftfruits,onlyfewspecieswere leafeaters - LedtoTarsiers? Oligocene:33.9MYAto22MYA:AfricahasntbumpedintoEurasiayet.Africaisan Island,Therewerecoolerdryerconditions.Forestsarecontracting,plainslandswere expanding,andicecapswereforming.
OligocenePrimates Three(3)Haplorhinefeatures Fusedfrontalbone Fullpostorbitalclosure Fusedmandibularsymphasis ThreeTaxonomicGroups Parapithecidae Propliopithecidae AndPlatyrrhini
SouthAmericanPrimates PrimatesappearforfirsttimeinfossilrecordofSouthAmericatowards lateOligocene OriginsofsouthAmericaprimateunclear MayhaveraftedoverfromAfrica AfricawasquiteclosetoSouthAmericaatthetime Miocene:IndiahitsEurasia,fluctuationsintemperatureleadtolandbridgesthat sometimesformbetweenEuropeandAfrica.SpontaneousappearanceofMonkeysin
Europe.
Early:23MYA16MYA.MonkeysandApes(e.g.proconsul)apparentlyconfinedto Africa Middle:16MYA11.6MYA.Apelikecatarrhines(e.g.dryopithecus)widespread anddiverseinEuropeandAsia.MoneysandApescameoutofAfricaandspreadout intoEuropeandAsia Late:11.5MYA5.3MYA.Apes(e.g.Sivapithecus)becamerareraswoodlands andforestsreplacedbydrierandmoreopenhabitats.
Pliocene:5.3MYA1.8MYA.
PlioceneWeatherandGeography LandmassesstillonmoveconnectionbetweennorthandsouthAmerica openedviaPanam Fluctuationsinglobaltemperatures MediterraneanseadriedupatendofMioceneandfilledupagaininthe Pliocene PliocenePrimates Geographyandclimate TwomainTaxa FossilCercopithecinae FossilColobinae Phylogeneticrelationships:Unresolved
TransitionalForms(Apes:Humans)? ModificationsofPostcranialskeletonfrobipedallocomotion Shapeandsizeofcanines,especiallyinmales,changessonotpointyor bladelike.Reductioninlevelofsexualdimorphism(differentinsexes)in caninesize. Expansionofbrain WhatisaHominin? Hominins:Modernhumans,Chimpanzeesandfossilspeciesmore closelyrelatedtoeachotherthantoanyotherlivingspecies. HumansandChimpanzeesareonly3%differentintermsofDNA
MorphologicalTrendsinHomininEvolution MosaicEvolution:Majorevolutionarychangestendtotakeplacein stages,notallatonce Bipedalism Increasedbrainsize Intelligence Relative(Somescaleisused[i.e.brainsize/bodysize])vs.Absolute (definitivelydifferent)differences
Quadrupedalismvs.Bipedalism ForamenMagnum:Holeinthebottomofthescull.Theholeinintheback inGorillasandinthemiddleinHumans Pelvis:Humanshaveshortbowllikepelvis,whileChimpanzeeshavea longthinnerpelvis.TheAustralopithecinepelvisisverysimilartoours. Walkingisessentiallycontrolledfalling,thereforeourlegbonesare designedtotiltin,andthisisalsosimilartotheAustralopithecus. Hallux:ThebigtoeofaGorillaisverysimilartothethumbinahuman Hands:AGorillasbandsaredifferenttoahumansastheywalkontheir knucklesandusethemforlocomotion.
Inorderforabraintoexpanditfolds.Thisisbecausethesizeofthecraniumisdue tothesizeofthemothersbirthcanal. HomininFossils: AllmostlyfoundinAfrica MostlyallfoundintheGreatRiftValleyofAfrica ThoughsomecanbefoundinAsiaandAustrailia
TransitionalForms
SahelanthropusTchadensis
BahrelGhazal,Chad Oldestknowntransitionalhominin7MYA Reconstructedcranium,fragmentedmandible,andafewteeth Combinationofapelikeandhomininlikefeatures
Orrorintugenensis
Kapsomin,Kenya Fragmentsofmandible,teeth,finger,femur,andhumerus Femurprovidesevidenceofbipedalism,butarmbonesindicateadept climber Mayrepresentearliestandfirstbipedalhominin
ArdipithecusramidusandArdipitheciskadabba
MiddleAwash,Ethiopia A.ramidus:4.4MYA A.kadabba:585.6MYA Teethadfragmentsofvariousupperandlowerbones Bothapelike(thinenamel)traitsandhomininliketraits(canineshave reducedsexualdimorphism)
Kenyathropusplatyops
WestTurkana,Kenya Highlyfragmentedcranium,afewmandibles,andfragmentsofskullbones Morphologysimilartoaustralopithecines November26th,2009
Hominins,HumanVariation,andForensicAnthropology
KeyAustralopithecines(Firstrealhumans):
AustralopithecusAnamensis
Keanapoi.Kenya 4.2to3.9MYA Toothrowisparallel(apelike)
Partialtibiaprovidesstrongevidenceofbipedality(humanlike) Primitive(apelike)cranialmorphologyandaderived(humanlike)postcranial morphology Whiletheskillandjawareapelike,whatisbelowishumanlike
AustralopithecusAfarensis
Mostabundantintermsoffossilsfound Ethiopia(Hadar,Omo,andFejej)andTanzania(Laetoli) 4.23.0MYA Manyspecimens Complexmorphologyexhibitingsomeapeliketraits(e.g.sagittalcrests[chewing musclesanchorontopofthehead])andhomininliketraits(e.g.valgusknee[knees comeinonananglethenprogressstraight]) Single,sexuallydimorphicspeciesortwospecies? LaetoliFootprints 3.6MYAinLaetoli,Tanzania Demonstratethatearlyhomininswerebipedal BigToeshardlydivergedfromrestoffoot,unlikeinchimpanzees
AustralopithecusAfricanus
VarioussitesinSouthAfrica 3.02.3MYA Averagebrainsizeis458cc. DentalfeaturesdifferfromthoseinA.Afarensis PostcranialfeaturessimilartothoseinA.Afarensis LegandfootbonesweresimilartoAfarensis,butteethetc.weremorehumanlike
AustralopithecusAethiopicus
WestTurkana,Kenya 2.72.3MYA Largeface,hugezygomatics,largeskullcrests,andenormousteeth, Remarkablyprimitivehomininatsuchalatetime
AustralopithecusBoisei
Olduvai,Tanzania 2.21.2MYA Hyperrobusthomniin MorphologybroadlysimilartothatseeninA.Aethiopicus
AustralopithecusRobustus
SwatkransandKromdraai,SouthAfrica 21.MYA Anotherrobustform Smallanteriorteethandlargeposteriorteethcoveredinthickenamel
GracileandRobustforms?
Gracile: Afarensis Africanus Robust: Boisei Robustus Aethiopicus
RiseofthegenusHomo
EarliestevolvedinAfrica Mostdateto2.4to1.8MYA Firstfossilmemberoftaxon:Homohabilis,whichmeansHandyman SomeresearcherssuggestthatH.HabilisisJunkTaxonandthattheremaybetwo ormorespeciesofHomoby2.0MYA.
SpeciesintheGenusHomo Homohabilis
FromsitesinTanzania,KenyaandEthiopia(2.31.6MYA) Speciesdesignation:Brainsizeandassociationwithstonetools
Homorudolfensis
Koobifora,Kenya OriginallyconsideredH.habilis H.RudolfensisorH.habilisfirst? Verycontroversial
Homoerectus
FirstspeciesingenusHomofoundoutsideAfrica(AsiaandSoutheastAsia) 1.8MYA27KYA Brainandbodysizechangesinlineage Controlleduseoffireandhunting EarlyAfricanspecimensmaybedifferentspecies,Homoergaster
Homoergaster
EarliestAfricanspecimens Turkanaboy:adultheightestimate,limbproportionsandpredictedstrength DebateonH.erectusorH.ergasterasdirectancestorofmodernhumans
Homoheidelbergensis
EuropeandAfrica 700130KYA ComparedofH.erectus,Heidelbergensis: Dentitionsmaller Brainbigger Bodysizebigger
Homoantecessor
Spain 1.2MYA800KYA Controversysurroundingspeciesdesignation Typespecimenisjuvenile:Lookdifferenttoadults 1sthominininEurope?
Homoneanderthalensis
EuropeandMiddleEast(30035MYA) BuriedpeopleingraveswithOfferings Limbbonesheavilymarkedbymuscularattachments;thickwallsofcorticalboneand largejoints,Neanderthalsextremelymuscular,highlyactive,andathleticbymodern humanstandards GeneticsofNeanderthalsversusmodernhumanspointtoa700KYAseparationand considerablegeneticvariation Someconsensus:Neanderthalsrepresentuniquespecies:HomoNeanderthalensis
Homofloresiensis
FloresIslands,Indonesia 9513KYA Smallbrainsize Primitiveandderivedfeatures NOTaberrantindividual;rather,uniquespecies
Homosapiens
160KYAinAfrica 100KYAinMiddleEast,40KYAinEurope Controlleduseoffire Huntingandgathering Culturalremains,includingincreasinglycomplexstonetools Burytheirdead ContemporarywithNeanderthals
PostcraniaofHomosapiens
LessrobustthanearlyH.sapiensorNeanderthals Longerlimbsandthinnerbonewalls Longer,morelightlybuilthands Shorterthickerpublicwalls
Reducedrobusticityoflongbones,perhapsresultofgreaterrelianceonstonetools thanonbruteforce
HumanOriginHypotheses
HumanReplacementHypothesis OnewaveofhumandispersalandreplacementofothercongeraoutofAfrica ModernhumansaredescendantsofAfricanH.sapiens Neanderthalsaredeadendgenetically MultiregionalHypothesis NowaveofH.sapiensreplacements H.Erectusmostrecentcommonancestorofmodernhumans H.Neanderthalscontributedtogenepool
AlanTempletonsOutofAfricaAgainandAgain
Analysisofmultiplehumangenesrevealspatternsofrecurrentgeneflow MultiplewavesinandoutofAfrica
Race
Inscience,raceingeographicallycircumscribedpopulationorsetofpopulationsthat differfromallotherpopulationsofaspecies
Inbiology,raceinsynonymouswithsubspecies Subspecies:Geographicallyisolatedpopulationswithinspecies
NoevidencethatHsapiensencounteredincreasingbiologicaldifficultiesin interbreedingwithanyotherpopulation
RacialBundles
CaucasianBundle Paleskin Straightorwavyhair Nosesofnarrowtomediumwidth Mediumtotallstature BlackBundle Blackordarkbrownskin WiryHair
Thicknosesandlips Mediumstature HedidnttalkaboutituntilafterhediedLOL!! Thesecategoriesdonothaveanythingtodowithrace
SkinColorAdaption
Physicaltraitswethinkofasclusteringtogetheramongparticularpeoplesoftenhave muchbroaderdistributions Theycontinuewelloutsideofgeographicareasinwhichraceisstereotypically supposedtoexist Examples:DarkbrownskinisfoundinsubSaharanAfricansaswellaspeoplefrom southernAsia,Australia,NewGuineaandonnearbyIslandsinMelanesia,aswellasin muchoftheAmericas
AreThereHumanRaces?
NObiologicalwaytodefineahumanrace Raceconceptsbasedoneverythingsfromskincolourthroughregion(s)oforiginto ethnicity Crudeclassificationsystemtypicallyinvolvesselfidentificationbasedinupbringing, culture,ethnicity,etc.
ForensicAnthropologyinRealLife
ForensicAnthropologyisappliedScience Borrowsmethodsandtechniquesdevelopedfromskeletalbiology,osteology,and anatomy;andappliesthemtocasesforforensicimportance.Forensicmeanslegal
ForensicAnthropology
Methodsandtechniquestoassess: 1) Age 2) Sex 3) Stature 4) Trauma 5) Pathology Tohelpanthropologistsunderstanddifferentpopulationslivingallovertheworld
AssessingAgeinSkeletons
Youngerindividualis,moreaccuratelytheiragecanbeestimated WHY:processossificationproceedsmorerapidlyatearlierages,andtherearemore developingbonesinexamine
Forexample:Comparestateofappearance
1) AssessingAgeinSkeletons
~17year,epiphysealcartilagecellsstopduplicatingandentirecartilageisslowly replacedbybone.Bonegrowthstops Ossificationofallbonesisusuallycomplicatedbyage25
2) AssessingSexinSkeletons
Pronounceddifferenceinshapeofpelvis,Birthcanallargerandrounderinfemales Maleshavenarrowerpelvis,withsmallerandlessrounderbirthcanals
3) AssessingStatureinSkeletons
Sexualdimorphism:Malesandfemalesdifferinbodysize(females~8595%sizeof males) MeasurethelengthofFemurandhumerustodetermineheight LengthoffemurincmX2.32+65.53heightincm LengthofHumerusincmX2.89+78.10=heightincm
4) AssessingTraumainSkeletons
Lesion(Pathologicallyproducedfeatureofabone;suchasTB)vs.Bonedefect (hole,break,orothertraumaticdamage) Overallnatureofbonedefect,timingoftraumarelativetodeath,andnatureofforces thatoperatedonabonecausingacertaintrauma
5) AssessingPathologyinSkeletons
Abnormalitythatarisesindisease,alnutrition,orgeneticdefect Differs
January7th,2010
TipsonWriting:ProfessorLehman
1) FindyourInformationandorganizeit. Keepyournotesandmakeaplan CreateAnnotatedBibliographyasyougo 2) MakeanOutline Keepsideasinlogicalorder 3) WriteaFirstDraft FollowtheOutline IDyouraudience Stateyourthesis Putitawayfor24hours 4) Rereadandwrotefinaldraft AvoidPassivevoice(Formoftobe:+pastparticiple=passivevoice)Example: TheclasshasbeenscorchedbyProfessorLehmansfierybreathInto:Professor Lehmanscorchedtheroomwithhisfierybreath 5) Getsomeonetoproofreadyouressay 6) Readyouressayaloudinthemirror
SECTION3:LINGUISTICANTHROPOLOGY ProfessorDenesi
WhatisLanguage?:ASignSystem WhatistheGlobalVillage?:ThinkMarshallMcLuhan WhyisLanguagerelevantinthisvillageespecially?:Seeabove Whatisinterculturalcommunication(IC)?(lingua,francas,kiones):
Meanings
Affairs
1. 2. 3. 4.
Somethingdoneortobedone(asinGetyouraffairsinorder) Aprofessionalorpublictransaction(asinaffairsofState) Asocialoccurrenceorevent(asinTheirweddingasabigaffair) Aromanticorsexualrelationship(asinTheirswasasteamyaffair)
Whatdoesthismean?
5. Iaminvolvedinanaffairrightnow,andthuscannothelpyouout Cognates:Wordsinlanguagesthatcomefromthesamesourcebuthavedifferent meanings And
Calques:takingthemeaningofawordfromonelanguageandimposingit onanother
Example:LibraryandLiberia[TechnicallycalledInterference]
Pidgins:Theyemergedtypicallytomakecommunicationpossiblebetweentwoormore groupsthatspeakdifferentlanguages Pidginsundergostandardization,developingintoseparatelanguages,arecalled creoles
WhataboutlanguagesonlineusedinIC?
Thepragmaticdimension:HowtosayHelloandGoodbye? TheLogosemanticdimension:HowdoyouexpressLove? LanguageandLanguageDesign Logos UniversalPrinciple (1) EconomizingPrinciple:Withasmallsetofsoundscancreatewordsad infinitumthroughphonological,grammatical,andlexicalstructures Wordscallattentiontolanguage:Referentiality Ex.GlipNowmeans:Apersonwearingoneearring [ProfessorDenesiMadeuptheDrinkMilk,LoveLifeCommercials] Phonology: ABoyiseatingapfizza [PhonemeandPhonologicalinterference]: Cat,Bat,Rat,Mat Morphology: AnBoyisEatingPizza
AboyAnEgg AgirlAnIsland AmanAnApple AwomanAnOpinion [Theconceptofthemorphemeandmorphologicalinterference] ILLOGICALLY Syntax:Boyaneatingpizzais Semantics:ABoyiseatingmilk (2) TheSyntaxPrinciple:Thisassertsthatallthelanguageshaverulesfor combiningwordstoformphrasesandsentences,againadinfinitum TokicktheBucket Thepigisreadytoeat (3) TheUsagePrinciple:Thisassertsthatalllanguageshavestrategiesof usagethataregovernedbyculturespecifictraditions. Talkingfacetofaceversusonthephone (4) TheClassificationPrinciple:dependingonwhereyouareyouwillname thingsmorethanothers. SpecializedvocabulariesandtheWhorfianHypothesis(WH) KinshipTerms ColorTerms ZipfsLawaspartofeconomizing TheWFandsocialchange SPEECH Itisimpossibletotalkwithoutusingyourhands Langue(knowledgeoflanguage)andParole(Abilitytouselanguageindifferent contexts)
Contextiscrucial Dialogue:Crucial,involvinglanguageandhowitisused.Allowsallofustobe
participantsintheworld
Conversationisawaytoacknowledgingtheother Ithasregisters;itdependsontheclassandcontact
DidacticandPhilosophicalfunctions Languagehadenormousritualisticfunctions SomeFunctions: Makingandendingcontact:Hi,howsitgoing?...etc Approving/disapproving Thinking/scolding ThelogicofConversation Igottasplitman! SeeyalaterMa! LinguisticandCommunicativecompetence Gambits: UhhuhyeahhmmmAha Youagreedontyou?:Tagquestion. MayIaskyouaquestion? HearrivedonMonday.Sorry,ImeantTuesday
Discourse:Communicationthatrelatestowhoyouthinkyouareandwhoyouwantto be. Jargon:Specificwordsaccordingtowhatdiscourseyouarepartof Sociopoliticalfunctions JakobsonsModel (1) Dontdothat,stupid! (2) Itisbestthatyoudonotdothat! ConstituentsofCommunication CONTEXT
ADDRESSER
MESSAGE CONTACT CODE
ADDRESSEE
CommunicativeFunctions CONTEXT EMOTIVE POETIC PHATIC METALINGUAL CONATIVE
Phaticspeechinterference/calque Themoreemotivelyyoufeelaboutsomething/someone,thelessstrictlyyouspeak. January28th,2010
CommunicationandCulture
HumanCommunication Sensorycommunication Weuseoursenseswithoutevenknowingit VocalSymptoms:includesthemodulationofvoicetocrossfromone emotiontoanother(Signalmeaning) Thetimberofyourvoicecharacterizesyou Insomeways,textmessagingisavisualcommunication Thereisevidencethatvisuallanguagecamebeforevocallanguage Certainsoundsarealearnedskill.(Thessoundandthehsound) Touchislargelydeemphasizedinwesternculture SensoryMode AuditoryVocal Features Thismodecharacterizesspeech,vocalsignaling,some
Visual Tactile Olfactory Gustatory
symptoms(forexample,coughingandsnoring),musical effects(forexample:whistling),andvoicemodulation(to communicateidentityandfeelingstates Thismodecharacterizessignlanguages,writing,andof coursevisualrepresentation(drawing,sculptingetc) Thismodecharacterizescommunicationbymeansof touch(handshaking,hugging,etc) Thismodecharacterizescommunicationbymeansof smell(usingperfumes,colognes,etc) Thismodecharacterizescommunicationbymeansof taste(food,drinks,etc)
Media Medium Natural Artificial Mechanical
Example Thevoice(Speech),theface(expressions),andthebody (Gesture,posture,etc) Books,paintings,sculptures,letters,etc. Telephones,radios,televisionsets,computers,videos, etc.
Information [Sender][Message][Receiver] Bullseyemodelofcommunication ComponentsoftheProcess Channelisthephysicalsystemcarryingthetransmittedsignal.
Interferenceandnoise Humancommunicationsystemshavecreatedsomethingtocounteractinterference (noise)
Redundancy(ifyousendamessageandthereisinterferencethereisenoughtoget thewholemeaning) Example:Ys,mIscmngtdnnrthsvnng=YesImalsocomingtodinnerthisevening Feedback
Style 1) ThechocolatebarwaseatenbyDebbie.Itwasnoeatenbye,norwasit myintentiontodoso.Theeatingactionwasaccomplishedquickly.The chocolatewasdevouredbyher. Toopassive[tooobjective] 2) Iputsodiumtogetherwithchlorine.IknowIwasgoingtogetareaction.I thoughtIwouldgetsalt.Butitdidntworkoutforsomereason.Ineedto investigatethisfurther Notobjective[serious]enough ConceptualMetaphorTheory StructureoftheMetaphor Theprofessorisasnake Testmaterial: 1. Interculturalcommunication: 1. Interference 2. Communicationintheglobalvillage 1. Language 1. Universalprinciples 2. Languagedesign 1. Speech 1. Languageversusspeech 2. ArgumentationNOTONTEST 1. LinguisticsNOTONTEST 1. IntroductoryRemarks 2. Dialogue 1. Didacticandphilosophicalfunctions 2. Socialinteractionalfunctions 1. Conversationanddiscourse 1. Thelogicofconversation 2. Communicativecompetence
3. Discourse 1. Speechfunctions 1. Jakobsonsmodel 2. SpeechacttheoryNOTONTEST 1. MeaningNOTONTEST 2. UtterancesNOTONTEST 1. HumanCommunication 1. communicationandinteraction 2. CommunicationasjointactionNOTONTEST 1. Languageandactions 1. NeedsanddesiresNOTONTEST 2. Style FinalConsiderations SoundSymbolism Eachofthefollowingwordsandexpressionshasasoundsymbolicaspecttoit.Indicate whatthataspectisandhowitisconnectedtothemeaning: drop smash hit spoof whack big bang flip-flop yahoo ping-pong google basically, they are like onomatopoeia. Icon Thewordswemakearenotarbitrarylabelsweplaceontheworld,theycome fromanexperienceoftheworldaroundus. Powerfulfunctioninhumanlife. UnconsciousSoundsymbolism inthealliterationorrepetitionofsoundsforvariouseffects:singsong,nonoetc. inthelengtheningofsoundsforemphasis:yesssss.Nooooo. Intheuseofintonationtoexpressemotionalstates,toemphasizesomething,to shocksomeoneetc.Areyousure?Noway! Insoundmodeling,exemplifiedbythelanguageuesdincartoonsandcomic books:zap!Boom!Pow! Inonomatopoeicwords:bang.Boom,swish,plop
intheuseofloudnesstoconveyastateofanger,urgencyetc.andinitsopposite, whispering,toconveysecrecy,conspiracyetc.
SocialCulturalAnthropology WithProfessorBarker
February25th,2010 WeekOne WhatisSCAnthropology?
SCanthropologyisthesubfieldofthedisciplinethatseekstounderstandand explainsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweencontemporarysocietiesand contemporaryculturesaroundtheworld. ProfessorRichardLee:researchedtheJuHoansiKungSanofBotswana PhilippeBourgois:Insearchofrespect(Readthisbook)Aboutcrack dealersinHarlem,NewYork WhatisitthatSCanthropologistsdo?
ResearchPractices: FieldworkandParticipantobservation Analyticpractices: MelfordSpiro:TheworkofSCanthropologyistomakethestrange familiarandthefamiliarstrange.SCanthropologyallowustotakethose featureofothercultureswhichseemtobeexoticorstrangeandseekto makesenseofthem. Makingthestrangefamiliar:Advocacyforthemarginalizedandoppressed Makingthefamiliarstrange:Decentering,deconstructing,denaturalizing assumptionsaboutcommonlife. SCAnthropologyisusedtotryandmakepersonalexperiences understoodtoeveryone Helpsustodevelopaperspectivethatletsuslookuponourown cultureandseeitasstrange.Allowingusadeeperunderstandingofour culture. Derrida:Compiledthethreepeoplewhoknockedpeoplesassumptionsof cultureoffkilter. Copernicus:Provedthattheearthandthereforethepeopleonearth
werenotatthecentreoftheworld Darwin:Provedthatpeoplewerepartoftheanimalworld Freud:TheoryoftheUnconscious.Showedthatthereisalevelof peoplesthoughtthatisworkingindependentlyoftheconscience.There isanAlienwithin.HedisprovedDescartesIthinkthereforeIamtheory. Anthropocentricism:Theideathathumansareatthecenterofeverything:ofthe universeofthenaturalworldandofthemind.
SensoryAnthropology: DavidHowesonsensoryperceptionacrosscultures:thesenseshave differentsenseratios(McLuhan)indifferentcultures Isitsomethingthatiscultural,notjustnatural Wholeculturestendtocultivatesomesensesoverothers AnthonySeegerontheSuyaofCentralBrazil:Iseevs.Itisinmyear StephanFeldontheKaluliofPapuaNewGuinea:Thesoundsofaplace vs.visualcues Somethingwemayunconsciouslyregardasbeingnaturalcanbe,infact, aculturalcreation
Howisthissectionofthecoursegoingtobeorganized?
OfficeHour:Wednesday,45pmAp225 TestandExam: Anythingcoveredinthelectures,whetheroral,PowerPoint,oronfilm Anythingfromthetextbook Hiswayofassessing:Therewillbeacoupleofquestionsstraightformthe textbookandnevermentionedinthelecture(MemorizeTextbook!) Thebulkofthequestionswillbeamixtureofwhatissaidandwhatisread Whatisculture?Apreliminaryanswer Everydayuses:businessculture,corporateculture,popculture,highand lowculture,ItalianCanadianCulture,etc. KroeberandKluckhohn:found164definitionsofculturein1964 Oneofthebestwaysthatsomethingisgivenmeaningisthrough opposition.Therefore:Whatisculturenot?
Itisnotnature(giventhroughbiology;innate,acquired). Innateinheritedqualitiesnotinheritedbyconditioningoracquiring.** Welookathistoricalcontexts,Oppositions,etc. FranzBoas 19581942 AfounderofAmericanAnthropology Cultureasawayofarguingagainstracism:NurturenotNature Thiswasthetimeinwhichpeoplewentoutanddiscoveredpeoplefor whattheyassumedtobethefirsttime. CulturewasBoaswayofarguingagainstracisttheories.(I.e.Differences betweenracesarelearned,notbiological) ThiswasalsotheerainwhichDarwinstheorywasalltherageandpeople startedsayingthatdifferencesbetweenpeoplewereduetobiology,this allowedthemtojustifytheirfeelingsofsuperiority. TheEuropeaneconomicdrivehadtworeasons: Acquireresources FloodmarketswithmassproducedEuropeanproducts Nowadaysthecultureconceptisusedtodenaturalizeourideasofsubjectssuchas male,female,city,nation,rich,poor,race,etc. Theuseofcultureinpracticewillnotalwaysdenaturalizeideas,sometimesit reinforcestakenforgrantedassumptions(Theformbywhichsocialinequalityif formed)
Whatiscultureinanageofglobalization?
Globalization:Thegrowthandintensificationoftheflowofpeople,money,resources andinformationacrosstheglobe. Somesaythattheseincreasedflowsarenotalwaysperformedonalevelplaying field CulturalImperialism:Promotingonenationsvalues,beliefs,andbehaviorassuperior toothers. SomefeelthattheCulturalImperialismthatcomeswithglobalizationwillleadtoa homogenouscultureacrosstheglobe
CulturehasbecomeboundtoacertainstateCanadiancultureetc Ithasbecomesomethingtobeprotected,thefearofcontaminationfromthe others Itwasbecomingsomethingunchangingandbounded Itstartstolooklikewhattheconceptofraceusedtobe
SalvageAnthropology Anthropologicalresearchaimedatdocumentingandsavingculturesthatarethought tobeintheprocessofbecomingextinct ArjunAppadurai BasedinNYU AuthorofModernityatLarge Globalization Ethnoscapes Technoscapes Mediascapes Ideoscapes Financescapes Thesedifferentflowsareallworkedseparatelywitheachother Howthesevariousscapeslook,dependonwhodoesthelooking Thispictureisoneofacomplexinterweavingtapestrythatdoesnotallgo inonedirection. March4 th,2010 1) Review ScientificRacism:Placingracesonascaletoarguethatoneraceinbetter thanothers Boas:Humandiversityisaproductofnurture,notnature Thereisawayofusingadifferentstyleofglobalizationtoleadustoamore fluidandflexibleideaofculturethatalignsbetterwithBoasideaofculture Twoparts:1)Afundamentalism(lackofchange)2)Cosmopolitan 2) HowdoweunderstandCulturalDifference
Ethnocentrismvs.CulturalRelativism TherearemanydifferentkindsofCulturaltraditionsthatcancausecontroversy Veilingwomen,Circumcision(maleandfemale),abortion,infanticideetc. Thesecontroversiesleadtodiscussionthatcanleadtousunderstanding Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism:Thebeliefthatonesowncultureisthestandardbywhichpractices inotherculturesareunderstoodandjudged. 1)Measuresotherculturesversusexplicitorimplicithierarchies, wheneveraclaimofcentralityismadethereisaclaimofhowothersarein relationtothat(Developmentetc.) 2)Aclaimoflackofunderstanding.Claimingthatthewaythatpeopledo things(traditions,socialnorms,accents,languageetc.)aresomehow fundamentallyincomprehensibleornonsensical. CulturalRelativism:Theviewthatthemeaningsofsocialpracticesaredefinedby theirculturalcontext. Thesignificanceofathingisunderstoodrelativetothatcontext Hasthepowertodecentreethnocentrismtwoways 1)Byshowingthatotherculturescanmakesenseintheirownterms 2)Bychallengingandunderminingclaimstoculturalsuperiority. Developedthroughashiftinperspective. Examples: InMesoamericansociety,babiesjustbornarenotalwaysconsidered realpersonsandtherefore,iftheybecomeill,verylittlewillbedoneto savethemandtheywilldie. InPartsofTurkey,sometimeswomenaretestedtomakesurethatthey arevirgins.Beliefsaboutreproductioninthisplacecanmakefearsvalid towardspaternity. EmilyMartin: Wellknownanthropologistofscience Authorof:TheWomanintheBody:AculturalAnalysisofReproduction (1987) TheSpermandtheEgg Itisourresponsibilityasscientists,humanistsandsocialscientiststobeas cognizantaswecanabouthowourinterpretationsareshapedbyorupbringings.
3) Whatisaworkingdefinitionofculture? Oneofthebestwaystounderstandcultureistoputitupagainstwhatweperceive asnotculture(e.g.Nature) Themeaningsthatpeopleattachedtotheseprocessesthough,arenotalwaysthe same Textbook: Theself,howdoconceptsofpersondifferformculturetoculture? CultureBoundillnesses. TheIdeaoftheLensthroughwhichyouseetheworlddifferentlyisbestshownby thepracticeofclassification. 1)Perhapsthereasonthatpeopleclassifythingsinacertainwayisbecausetheyare takingthelabelsthattheyuseintheireverydaylivesandapplyingthemtotheoutside world 2)Classificationisapartofthebinarymindthatconstantlyseekstomakesenseof theworld. 4) Howdoanthropologistsgoaboutstudyingculturaldifference 5) Whatiscultureinanageofglobalizatio
March11 th,2010 ResearchTechniques EthnographicFieldwork ThepersonwhodoesEFiscalledandEthnographerandtheworksthat detailtheirfindingarecalledethnographies Surveys,Interviews,Questionnaires,etc. Openendedquestioning:Comeinwithvaguegoalsandquestionsand allowthepeopletodirecttheflowofconversation Thetranscriptoftheconversationisthenstudiedfornotonlywhatthey say,butalsohowtheysayitandhowtheflowoftheconversationids directed.
ParticipantObservation ThickDescription:describesallthepossiblemeaningsofasignor systemofsigns Participatingintheeverydayactivitieswhilealsoobserving Thisdualstatusofparticipatorandobserverisamentallyenthralling practice FamousFieldworkers: BranislawMalinowski E.E.EvansPritchard ArmchairAnthropologist JamesFrazer LucienLeviBruhl ClaudeLeviStrauss Wouldgathertogetherallofthedocumentationoncertainplacesandidea andstudyingandanalyzingthem Thesedocumentswerenotmadebyanthropologists,butusuallybylocal officialsandresidents Cameupwithglobaltheoriesabouthumanity WhatiscultureinanageofGlobalization? Salvageanthropology:Withthetransformationsofculturemakepeoplefearforthe traditionsofthecultures. Ex.Avatar: DepictssmallcommunitiesasNobleSavages Afantasyaboutsmallscalesocietiesinwhichpeoplearethoughttolivein anidyllicstateofmoralpurity KnownaspartoftheWhiteLegend TheBlackLegendtalkedaboutsmallscalesocietiesasSavagesandnot human VeryoftenaprojectionofEuropeanviewsonothersocieties
ArjunAppadurai BasedatNYU AuthorofModernityatLarge Gobalization Ethnoscapes Technoscapes Mediascapes Ideoscapes Financescapes Notalloftheseflowsaregoinginthesamedirection.Theyareveryunevenandthe waysthatweseethisglobalculturecannotjustbeseeninthewayofAmerican Globalization GeorgeMarcus CurrentlyteachesatRiceUniversity FoundedtheJournalCulturalAnthropology SharedCosmologiesHavebecomeattenuated,fragmented,interpenetrated Avatarvs.HurtLocker:SalvageAnthropologyvs.InvestigationonMotivations AvatartriestogetintotheheadoftheOther(i.e.NAVI) HurtLockerdepictsOtherandunintelligible.Invitedintoexperiencethe fearoftheAmericanoccupierbutneverthepeopleofIraqinsuchaway thatwecouldbegintounderstand TheonlyIraqithatweareinvitedtomeetisayoungboywhomirrorsthe westernculture Ifitmirrorsourculturewewilltreatitwithhumanity,ifnotwedonot KwameAnthonyAppiah Ghanaianculturaltheoristandphilosopher ProfessorofphilosophyandPrinceton
Theoriginsofthingsoftenrootthemselvespackpastwhatourpreconceptionsand notionsplacethem. Bricolage:Thepatchingtogetherofdifferentelementsintoawhole Cultureisnotsomethingthatisstableandgivenbutalwaystransforming AssertionTheverynotionofcultureasbeingopenandinventiveisonlyspecificto particularcultures. Peoplewhoidentityasbeingpartofaspecificcultureoftenhavea differentconceptionoftheirculture EX.TheJavanesehaveatypeofshadowpuppettheatre.Itisatradition thatisverymuchlikealiteratureormythologyandcangoonforalmost12 hoursatatime.Itgivespeopleachancetocongregateandsocialize.The storiesbeingtoldareoftenfromtheIndianRamayana.Thistypeoftheatre issomethingthatisthoughttohavetobepreserved. EX.TheSudanesehaveawyanesepuppettheatrethattellsthesame storiesbutdonotfeelcompelledtopreservethetraditionsagainstforeign components.(ex.incorporatingmartialartscomponentsintotheirshows) ThiswasmeanttoshowthattheSudanesepuppetswerebecomingmore modern,andsoweretheSudanese TheWorldisdividedagainsttwoTypesofideas 1) 2) Traditionalist Cosmopolitan: Pluralism Fallibilism:Knowledgeisprovisionalandmustconstantlyberevisedinthe faceofnewevidence Seekstolearnaboutotherculturesandcivilizations.Nottoagreewith themnecessarily,buttogetalongwiththem. Seekstotakewhatisstrangeandmakeitfamiliar homosum:humaninilamealienumputo;Iamhuman:nothingisaliento me IsCulturedeterminedbySomethingElse?
EnvironmentalDeterminism(ecologicaladaption) Culture|Environment E.g.linkingcertainculturetraits(ex.favoringhearingoversightbecausetheforestis dark)totheenvironmentinwhichthepeoplelive EconomicDeterminism(Marxism) Culture|Environment Placedownershipoverproductivecapacities Culture(Thesystemofmeaningsthatwehaveinaculture)existinordertomaintain theexistingstatusquo E.g.Survivor Takenocognizancetoanybroadermeaningofculturalforms Thatkindofideologywouldbebeneficialtocapitalism
CultureismerelyadaptingbeittoCulturalorEnvironmentalforces. Socialscientistshaveaprivilegedviewonthecausalfactorsthatwilldeterminewhat cultureis. HowisSocietyHeldTogether? TheBritishTradition:SocialAnthropology Society:Therulesandregulationsthatorganizehumanrelations(MandJ) E.g.Laws Theydeterminewhomaydoorbewhatorwho. Itisthedefinitionofwhatitmeanstobeachildorandadult Itisonwhocanformcontractswithwhom.[e.g.Business,Marriageetc.] Criminallawoutlinesseveralactswhicharenotallowedandare
punishable. Therearesocialsanctionsaswellthataremeanttoreinforceimplicit sanctionsonsocialactivity SocialStructure:Theideathathumanrelationsarepatternedandpredictable Societywhenitstartstogelintoanmorefixedformoftotality EX.ThedifferencebetweenCanadiansocietybetweenthecolonialera andthatofafterthecolonialera. Rolesandtherelationshipsbetweenroles=socialstructure Noticethatithasnobearingontherealworld;itjustconnectspeopleto eachother. CanalsobedefinedbyMarxistterms Institutions:Whenpatternsofbehaviorandideologybecomerelativelydiscreteand autonomous Asystemofideas. Hasatone,asensetoitthatmeansthatitisreferringbacktosomething elseforfundamentaltoitthanculture,usuallythemeansofproduction. Ex.aBand.Theyareatypeofsocietythathasaprettysolidideologyor culture. Itisusuallyintheformofironytatbebestunderstandinstitutions Thecorporationasainstitution.Thebestwayofunderstandingitisto watchamoviecalledThecorporation TotalInstitutions:Governeveryfacetofpeopleslives.[Prison,anAsylum]. Youarestrippedofallyourpersonalitiesinwaysthatyouarenot. Howdotheydothis? ThePanopticon:Aprisonformthatallowedtheguardtowertobeinthe centreofthejailandhaveallofthecellsaroundthetowerfacingthetower withmirroredglasstolettheguardsseeoutbuttheprisonerswouldalways seeareflection.Thereforetheywouldalwaysfeelasiftheywerebeing watchedandtheywouldreformtheirbehaviortofitthisconstantfearof observation. Somewouldsaythatinthisdigitalagewearealllivinginapanopticon Functionalism:Twovariations 1) (MalinowskisFunctionalism)
HumanbeingshavebiologicalneedsCulturesatisfiesneedsviainstitutions Institutionscreatesecondorderneed(cultural)Culturesatisfiestheseneeds viamoreinstitutions(andrepeat) e.g.Marriagetoassuagetheneedtocapproduction=secondaryneedslike theneedforpsychoanalysiswhichisalsoassuagedbymoreinstitutionsandso onandsoforth.
Theculturesatisfiesneedviainstitutions.Butintheprocessofsatisfying theseneedstheycreate2ndorderneedsthatmustalsobeassuagedwith institutions RadcliffeBrownsFunctionalism InstitutionXisdoneforYInstitutionhasaneffect(Z)Zisbeneficialto SocietyWSinceXispartofW,XisreproducedAndsoon LatentFunctions:functionsthatthemembersofsocietythemselvesarenot awareof. Sometimestheuseofinstitutionscreatesideeffectswhichcanbebeneficial tosociety Becauseofthissomeinstitutionsthatarenotaddressingaspecificissuethey maystillprosperbecausethehavebeneficialsideeffects Against: Theytreatinstitutionsasbeingonlyfunctionaltosociety;theyexistinorderto maintainmoreinstitutions Theytreatsocietyasahomeostaticentity Theytreatsocietiesasbeingbounded Theseassumptions(ethnocentric)comefromstudyingboundedsocietiesand castingthesefindingsonallsocieties.
arch18 M th,2010 HowisSocietyheldtogether? EmileDurkheim: MechanicalSolidarity:Theformofsolidaritythatpertainstosmallscale societies(primitivesocieties).[Avillageinwhicheachmemberperforms thesamekindsoftasksandrituals,whilesharingasenseofreligions moralityorvalues.Theformsoflaborarenotindividuallyhonoredand differentiated.Everyoneisinvolvedintheprocess.] OrganicSolidarity:Istheformofsolidaritythatpertainstomodern societies.Specializationoftasksespeciallyinproductionprocesses.This societyismadeofinstitutions,whichactslikeorgansinaperson. TheState Mostimportantfordividingandcommandinglabor BenedictAnderson: InstitutionsliketheChurch,theuniversity,andthemoderncorporation. Itingestsandexcretespersonnel Ithasitsownmemoryanditsowninterestsinselfpreservationapartfromthepeople whomakeitup. Thesegementarysocialsystem Systemofincreasinglyinclusivenestedsocialgroups Allowedforthemobilizationoflargenumbersofpeopleforwarfare HutHomesteadHamletVillagePartsofTribesTribes OtherNuertribesandsoon. E.E.EvansPritchard CreatoroftheSegmentarysocialsystem NonStateSocieties
SegmentarySocialSystems: Nestedgroups Havenohereditaryruler Areasephalous(headless) CommoninsprecolonialAfrica LeadersofProwess: AchievementbasedLeadership:acquiredthroughownactions CommoninprecolonialSEAsia Prescribednotbyascribed(born)status Battlesfoughtandwon Thereisnothingnaturalaboutstatesocieties ThereforeAnthropologistsdenaturalizeditbystudyingnonstatesocieties Thesestudieshavedrawnourattentiontotheseaspectsofourown societiesthatdonotworkwiththeidealizedideasofwhatstatesocieties arelike. Thiskindofachievementbasedquesttoattractfollowersisprevalentin gangsocietiesinmodernstatesocieties
Howarewetounderstandsocialchange? Societiesdochange,andsomehavechangedfromsmallscalesocietiestolarge scalesocieties Andallsocietiescontinuetochange
Durkhem,Weber,Marx Writinginthelate19thandearly20thcentury Atimewhentherewasagrowingamountofinformationaboutdifferentkindsof societiesthatexistintheworld Awayofcopingwiththisinformation Thiswasalsotheheightofindustrialcapitalisminitsfactorymode
thewaysinwhichlivelihoodswerebeingpursuedwherechangingdramatically Functionaltheories EmileDurkheim:Frommechanicaltoorganicsolidarity Anomie:Akindofalienationthattheindividualfeelstowardssociety Thismovementdisconnectedthepeoplefromwhattheyusedtofeelin traditionalsocieties Feltthatthislayintherootsofsuicide MaxWeber:rationalization(process) Theshiftoftraditionalsocietiestomodernsocieties Theintroductionofmeansendrationalityintoeveryinstitutionsoflife,and everyrelationship Aprocesswherebysocialinstitutionsandinteractionsaretransformed basedonideasofefficiencyinsteadofemotionalism. Themorerationalizedsocietiesbecamethemoreinterestedtheybecame ineconomicactivity Theprocessoftherationalizationofsocietyisalsotheprocessofthe bureaucratizationofsocialinstitutions. KarlMarx:Changeintothemodeofproduction(intocapitalism) Observesashift,butassociatesitasbeingfundamentallyaboutashiftin thewayinwhichsocietyistryingtreproducingismaterialneedsof existence Differentmodesofproduction(generalizedpatternofproductionina society) Primitivecommunism:landorresourcesareownedcollectivelybythe community Feudalism:Thelordofthelandwouldownthelanduponwhichtheserfs wouldconducttheiragriculturallabor.Themeansofproductionswhere ownedbytheupperclass. Asocietyinwhichpeopleputtheirlaborupforhireinordertosurvive. NewConceptstoDescribeSocialChangeatthisJuncture
Globalization Postmodernity Capitalistproductionwentfromhavingeverythingcreatedinonefactory andbuildingatownaroundit,tocompaniesthathavemanypiecesmade inseveraldifferentplacesatonce Fordism:Theassemblylinestyleofproduction PostFordism:ThestyleofproductionthatcameaftertheAssemblyline Ashiftfromabeliefinobjectiverealitytoamorerelativistunderstandingof truthandattentiontotheconstructionoftruth. Thisshiftsisemphasizedbyalackofconcernfortherealworldandmore ofaconcernonhowwerepresentthatworldandsimulatedworlds. Neoliberalism Hyperrationalizationwhereeverythingbecomesabouteconomyefficiency workingonindividuals. Workondissolvingtheneedforsocialinstitutions Eliminatingtheinstitutionsofthestate