Twelve
12-1
Chapter
Corporate Finance Risk, Cost of Capital, and Ross Westerfield Jaffe Capital Budgeting
Sixth Edition
12
Sixth Edition
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Chapter Outline
12.1 The Cost of Equity Capital 12.2 Estimation of Beta 12.3 Determinants of Beta 12.4 Extensions of the Basic Model 12.5 Estimating International Papers Cost of Capital 12.6 Reducing the Cost of Capital 12.7 Summary and Conclusions
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Whats the Big Idea?
Earlier chapters on capital budgeting focused on the appropriate size and timing of cash flows. This chapter discusses the appropriate discount rate when cash flows are risky.
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12.1 The Cost of Equity Capital
Firm with excess cash Shareholder invests in financial asset
Pay cash dividend
A firm with excess cash can either pay a dividend or make a capital investment Invest in project Shareholders Terminal Value
Because stockholders can reinvest the dividend in risky financial assets, the expected return on a capital-budgeting project should be at least as great as the expected return on a financial asset of comparable risk.
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The Cost of Equity
From the firms perspective, the expected return is the Cost of Equity Capital:
R i = RF + i ( R M RF )
To estimate a firms cost of equity capital, we need to know three things:
1. The risk-free rate, RF
RF Cov( Ri , RM ) i , M =2 1. The company beta, i = Var ( RM ) M
1. The market risk premium, R M
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Example
Suppose the stock of Stansfield Enterprises, a publisher of PowerPoint presentations, has a beta of 2.5. The firm is 100-percent equity financed. Assume a risk-free rate of 5-percent and a market risk premium of 10-percent. What is the appropriate discount rate for an expansion of this firm?
R = RF + i ( R M RF ) R = 5% + 2.5 10% R = 30%
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Example (continued)
Suppose Stansfield Enterprises is evaluating the following non-mutually exclusive projects. Each costs $100 and lasts one year.
Project Project Projects Estimated Cash Flows Next Year $150 $130 $110 IRR NPV at 30%
A B C
2.5 2.5 2.5
50% 30% 10%
$15.38 $0 -$15.38
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Using the SML to Estimate the RiskAdjusted Discount Rate for Projects
Project Good A projects B C 2.5
An all-equity firm should accept a project whose IRR exceeds the cost of equity capital and reject projects whose IRRs fall short of the cost of capital.
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30% 5%
IRR
SML
Bad projects Firms risk (beta)
12-9
12.2 Estimation of Beta: Measuring Market Risk
Market Portfolio - Portfolio of all assets in the economy. In practice a broad stock market index, such as the S&P Composite, is used to represent the market. Beta - Sensitivity of a stocks return to the return on the market portfolio.
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12.2 Estimation of Beta
Theoretically, the calculation of beta is straightforward:
Problems
Cov ( Ri , RM ) i2 = =2 Var ( RM ) M
1. Betas may vary over time. 2. The sample size may be inadequate. 3. Betas are influenced by changing financial leverage and business risk.
Solutions
Problems 1 and 2 (above) can be moderated by more sophisticated statistical techniques. Problem 3 can be lessened by adjusting for changes in business and financial risk. Look at average beta estimates of comparable firms in the industry.
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Stability of Beta
Most analysts argue that betas are generally stable for firms remaining in the same industry. Thats not to say that a firms beta cant change. Changes in product line Changes in technology Deregulation Changes in financial leverage
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Using an Industry Beta
It is frequently argued that one can better estimate a firms beta by involving the whole industry. If you believe that the operations of the firm are similar to the operations of the rest of the industry, you should use the industry beta. If you believe that the operations of the firm are fundamentally different from the operations of the rest of the industry, you should use the firms beta. Dont forget about adjustments for financial leverage.
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12.3 Determinants of Beta
Business Risk Cyclicity of Revenues Operating Leverage Financial Risk Financial Leverage
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Cyclicality of Revenues
Highly cyclical stocks have high betas.
Empirical evidence suggests that retailers and automotive firms fluctuate with the business cycle. Transportation firms and utilities are less dependent upon the business cycle.
Note that cyclicality is not the same as variability stocks with high standard deviations need not have high betas.
Movie studios have revenues that are variable, depending upon whether they produce hits or flops, but their revenues are not especially dependent upon the business cycle.
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Operating Leverage
The degree of operating leverage measures how sensitive a firm (or project) is to its fixed costs. Operating leverage increases as fixed costs rise and variable costs fall. Operating leverage magnifies the effect of cyclicity on beta. The degree of operating leverage is given by:
Change in EBIT Sales DOL = EBIT Change in Sales
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Operating Leverage
EBIT
$
Total costs Fixed costs
Volume
Fixed costs
Volume
Operating leverage increases as fixed costs rise and variable costs fall.
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Financial Leverage and Beta
Operating leverage refers to the sensitivity to the firms fixed costs of production. Financial leverage is the sensitivity of a firms fixed costs of financing. The relationship between the betas of the firms debt, equity, and assets is given by:
Asset
Debt Equity = Debt + Equity Debt + Equity Debt + Equity
Financial leverage always increases the equity beta relative to the asset beta.
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Financial Leverage and Beta: Example
Consider Grand Sport, Inc., which is currently allequity and has a beta of 0.90. The firm has decided to lever up to a capital structure of 1 part debt to 1 part equity. Since the firm will remain in the same industry, its asset beta should remain 0.90. However, assuming a zero beta for its debt, its equity beta would become twice as large:
Equity
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1 Debt = Asset 1 + Equity = 0.90 1 + 1 = 1.80
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12.4 Extensions of the Basic Model
The Firm versus the Project The Cost of Capital with Debt
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The Firm versus the Project
Any projects cost of capital depends on the use to which the capital is being putnot the source. Therefore, it depends on the risk of the project and not the risk of the company.
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Capital Budgeting & Project Risk
Project IRR The SML can tell us why:
SML
Incorrectly accepted negative NPV projects
Hurdle rate rf
RF + FIRM ( R M RF )
Incorrectly rejected positive NPV projects Firms risk (beta)
FI RM A firm that uses one discount rate for all projects may over time increase the risk of the firm while decreasing its value.
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Capital Budgeting & Project Risk
Suppose the Conglomerate Company has a cost of capital, based on the CAPM, of 17%. The risk-free rate is 4%; the market risk premium is 10% and the firms beta is 1.3. 17% = 4% + 1.3 [14% 4%] This is a breakdown of the companys investment projects: 1/3 Automotive retailer = 2.0 1/3 Computer Hard Drive Mfr. = 1.3 1/3 Electric Utility = 0.6 average of assets = 1.3 When evaluating a new electrical generation investment, which cost of capital should be used?
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Capital Budgeting & Project Risk
Project IRR
SML
Investments in hard drives or auto retailing should have higher discount rates. Firms risk (beta) 0.6 1.3 2.0
r = 4% + 0.6(14% 4% ) = 10%
24% 17% 10%
10% reflects the opportunity cost of capital on an investment in electrical generation, given the unique risk of the project.
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The Cost of Capital with Debt
The Weighted Average Cost of Capital is given by:
rWACC S B = rS + rB (1 TC ) S+B S+B
It is because interest expense is tax-deductible that we multiply the last term by (1- TC)
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12.5 Estimating International Papers Cost of Capital
First, we estimate the cost of equity and the cost of debt. We estimate an equity beta to estimate the cost of equity. We can often estimate the cost of debt by observing the YTM of the firms debt. Second, we determine the WACC by weighting these two costs appropriately.
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12.5 Estimating IPs Cost of Capital
The industry average beta is 0.82; the risk free rate is 8% and the market risk premium is 9.2%. Thus the cost of equity capital is
re = RF + i ( R M RF ) = 8% + 0.82 9.2% = 15.54%
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12.5 Estimating IPs Cost of Capital
The yield on the companys debt is 8% and the firm is in the 37% marginal tax rate. The debt to value ratio is 32%
rWACC S B = rS + rB (1 TC ) S +B S +B = 0.68 15.54% + 0.32 8% (1 .37) = 12.18%
12.18 percent is Internationals cost of capital. It should be used to discount any project where one believes that the projects risk is equal to the risk of the firm as a whole, and the project has the same leverage as the firm as a whole.
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12.6 Reducing the Cost of Capital
What is Liquidity? Liquidity, Expected Returns and the Cost of Capital Liquidity and Adverse Selection What the Corporation Can Do
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What is Liquidity?
The idea that the expected return on a stock and the firms cost of capital are positively related to risk is fundamental. Recently a number of academics have argued that the expected return on a stock and the firms cost of capital are negatively related to the liquidity of the firms shares as well. The trading costs of holding a firms shares include brokerage fees, the bid-ask spread and market impact costs.
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Liquidity, Expected Returns and the Cost of Capital
The cost of trading an illiquid stock reduces the total return that an investor receives. Investors thus will demand a high expected return when investing in stocks with high trading costs. This high expected return implies a high cost of capital to the firm.
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Liquidity and the Cost of Capital
Cost of Capital
Liquidity An increase in liquidity, i.e. a reduction in trading costs, lowers a firms cost of capital.
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Liquidity and Adverse Selection
There are a number of factors that determine the liquidity of a stock. One of these factors is adverse selection. This refers to the notion that traders with better information can take advantage of specialists and other traders who have less information. The greater the heterogeneity of information, the wider the bid-ask spreads, and the higher the required return on equity.
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What the Corporation Can Do
The corporation has an incentive to lower trading costs since this would result in a lower cost of capital. A stock split would increase the liquidity of the shares. A stock split would also reduce the adverse selection costs thereby lowering bid-ask spreads. This idea is a new one and empirical evidence is not yet in.
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What the Corporation Can Do
Companies can also facilitate stock purchases through the Internet. Direct stock purchase plans and dividend reinvestment plans handles on-line allow small investors the opportunity to buy securities cheaply. The companies can also disclose more information. Especially to security analysts, to narrow the gap between informed and uninformed traders. This should reduce spreads.
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12.7 Summary and Conclusions
The expected return on any capital budgeting project should be at least as great as the expected return on a financial asset of comparable risk. Otherwise the shareholders would prefer the firm to pay a dividend. The expected return on any asset is dependent upon . A projects required return depends on the projects . A projects can be estimated by considering comparable industries or the cyclicality of project revenues and the projects operating leverage. If the firm uses debt, the discount rate to use is the rWACC. In order to calculate rWACC, the cost of equity and the cost of debt applicable to a project must be estimated.
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