Producers, 7
Consumers, and
Consumers, Producers, and
the
the Efficiency of Markets
PRINCIPLES OF
MICROECONOMICS
FOURTH CANADIAN EDITION
N. G R E G O R Y M A N K I W
R O N A L D D. K N E E B O N E
K E N N E T H J. M c K ENZIE
NICHOLAS ROWE
PowerPoint Slides
by Ron Cronovich
Canadian adaptation by Marc PrudHomme
2008 Nelson Education Ltd.
In this chapter look for the answers to these
In this chapter, look for the answers to these
questions:
What is consumer surplus? How is it related to the
demand curve?
What is producer surplus? How is it related to the supply
curve?
Do markets produce a desirable allocation of resources?
Or could the market outcome be improved upon?
Or could the market outcome be improved upon?
2008 Nelson Education Ltd.
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Welfare Economics
Recall, the allocation of resources refers to:
how much of each good is produced
which producers produce it
which consumers consume it
it
Welfare economics:
the study of how the allocation of resources affects
economic well-being
First, we look at the well-being of consumers.
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Willingness to Pay (WTP)
A buyers willingness to pay for a good is the maximum
amount the buyer will pay for that good
amount the buyer will pay for that good.
WTP measures how much the buyer values the good.
name
name
WTP
Anthony
$250
Chad
175
Flea
300
John
Example:
4 buyers WTP
for an iPod
125
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WTP and the Demand Curve
Q: If price of iPod is $200, who will buy an iPod, and what
is quantity demanded?
is quantity demanded?
A: Anthony & Flea will buy an iPod,
Flea will buy an iPod,
Chad & John will not.
name
WTP
Anthony
$250
Chad
175
Flea
300
John
Hence
Hence, Qd = 2
when P = $200.
125
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WTP and the Demand Curve
Derive the
demand
demand
schedule:
P (price
of iPod)
who buys
Qd
$301 & up nobody
up
0
name
WTP
251 300 Flea
1
Anthony
$250
176 250 Anthony, Flea
2
Chad
175
Flea
300
John
125
126 175
Chad, Anthony,
Flea
John, Chad,
0 125
Anthony, Flea
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4
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WTP and the Demand Curve
P
$350
$300
P
Qd
$301 & up
up
0
251 300
1
$150
176 250
2
$100
$50
126 175
3
0 125
4
$250
$200
$0
Q
0
1
2
3
4
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About the Staircase Shape
P
This D curve looks like a staircase
with steps one per buyer.
with 4 steps one per buyer.
$350
$300
$250
$200
$150
$100
$50
$0
If there were a huge # of buyers,
as in competitive market
as in a competitive market,
there would be a huge #
of very tiny steps
of very tiny steps,
and it would look
more like a smooth
curve.
Q
0
1
2
3
4
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WTP and the Demand Curve
P
Fleas WTP
$350
$300
Anthonys WTP
$250
$200
Chads WTP
Johns
WTP
$150
$100
$50
$0
At any Q,
the height of
the D curve is the
WTP of the
marginal buyer,
th
the buyer who
would leave the
market if
market if P were
any higher.
Q
0
1
2
3
4
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Consumer Surplus (CS)
Consumer surplus is the amount a buyer is willing to pay
minus the buyer actually pays:
minus the buyer actually pays:
CS = WTP P
name
WTP
Suppose P = $260.
$260
Anthony
$250
Fleas CS = $300 260 = $40.
Chad
175
Flea
Flea
300
John
125
The others get no CS because they
do not buy an iPod at this price.
Total CS = $40.
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CS and the Demand Curve
P
Fleas WTP
$350
$300
P = $260
Fleas CS =
$300 260 = $40
$250
$250
$200
Total CS = $40
$150
$100
$50
$0
Q
0
1
2
3
4
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CS and the Demand Curve
P
Fleas WTP
$350
$300
Instead, suppose
P = $220
Anthonys WTP
Fleas CS =
$300 220 = $80
$250
$250
$200
Anthonys CS =
$250 220 = $30
$150
Total CS = $110
$100
$50
$0
Q
0
1
2
3
4
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CS and the Demand Curve
P
The lesson:
Total CS equals the
area under
th
the demand curve
above the price,
from to
from 0 to Q.
$350
$300
$250
$200
$150
$100
$50
$0
Q
0
1
2
3
4
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CS with Lots of Buyers & a Smooth D Curve
Price
per pair
per pair
At Q = 5 (thousand),
the marginal buyer is
willing to pay $50 for
pair of shoes.
Suppose P = $30.
Then his consumer
surplus = $20.
P
The demand for shoes
$ 60
50
40
30
1000s of pairs
of shoes
20
10
D
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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CS with Lots of Buyers & a Smooth D Curve
CS is the area b/w P
P
and the D curve, from
the
from
$ 60
0 to Q.
Recall: area of
Recall: area of
a triangle equals
x base x height
50
h
40
Height of
this triangle is
$60
$60 30 = $30.
$30
30
So,
CS
CS = x 15 x $30
15 $30
= $225.
The demand for shoes
10
20
D
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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How a Higher Price Reduces CS
If P rises to $40,
P
CS = x 10 x $20
= $100.
1. Fall in CS
Fall in CS
due to buyers
leaving market
60
Two reasons for the
fall in CS.
50
40
30
2. Fall in CS due to
CS
remaining buyers
paying higher
paying higher P
20
10
D
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1:
demand curve
curve
Consumer surplus 50
P
A. Find marginal
buyers WTP at
Q = 10.
B. Find CS for
P = $30.
$ 45
Suppose P falls to $20.
How much will CS
increase due to
C. buyers entering
the market
D. existing buyers paying
lower price
40
35
30
25
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
5
10
15
20
Q
25
16
A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1:
demand curve
curve
Answers
P
50
$ 45
A. At Q = 10, marginal
buyers WTP is $30.
40
35
B. CS = x 10 x $10
= $50
30
25
25
P falls to $20.
$20
20
C. CS for the
15
additional buyers
10
= x 10 x $10 = $50
5
D. Increase in CS
0
on initial 10 units
= 10 x $10 = $100
10 $10 $100
0
5
10
15
20
Q
25
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Cost and the Supply Curve
Cost is the value of everything a seller must give up to
produce good
produce a good (i.e., opportunity cost).
opportunity cost).
Includes cost of all resources used to produce good,
including value of the seller time
including value of the sellers time.
Example: Costs of 3 sellers in the lawn-cutting business.
name
cost
Angelo
$10
Hunter
20
Kitty
35
A seller will only produce and sell
th
the good if the price exceeds his or
if th
hi
her cost.
Hence, cost is a measure of
willingness to sell.
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Cost and the Supply Curve
Derive the supply schedule
from the cost data:
P
Qs
$0 9
0
10 19
1
name
cost
20 34
2
Angelo
$10
35 & up
3
Hunter
20
Kitty
35
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Cost and the Supply Curve
P
$40
P
Qs
$0 9
10 19
$10
$0
2
35 & up
$20
1
20 34
$30
0
3
Q
0
1
2
3
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Cost and the Supply Curve
P
$40
Kittys
cost
$30
$20
Hunters
cost
$10
Angelos cost
$0
At each Q, the height
each
the height
of the S curve
is the cost of the
is the cost of the
marginal seller,
the seller who would
leave the market if the
price were any lower.
Q
0
1
2
3
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Producer Surplus
P
PS
PS = P cost
$40
Producer surplus (PS):
the amount a seller
is paid for a good
minus the sellers cost
minus the sellers cost.
$30
$20
$10
$0
Q
0
1
2
3
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Producer Surplus and the S Curve
PS = P cost
P
$40
Suppose P = $25.
$25
Kittys
cost
$30
Angelos PS = $15
Hunters PS = $5
Hunters
cost
$20
$20
$10
Angelos cost
$0
Q
0
1
2
3
Kittys PS = $0
PS $0
Total PS = $20
Total PS equals the area
above the supply curve
under the price, from 0 to
Q.
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PS with Lots of Sellers & a Smooth S Curve
Price
per pair
per pair
P
The supply of shoes
60
Suppose P = $40.
$40
At Q = 15(thousand),
th
the marginal sellers
cost is $30,
S
50
40
and her producer
surplus is $10.
30
1000s of pairs
of shoes
20
10
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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PS with Lots of Sellers & a Smooth S Curve
PS is the area b/w
P and the S curve,
from 0 to Q.
The height of this
height of this
triangle is
$40 15 = $25.
So,
PS
PS = x b x h
= x 25 x $25
= $312.5
P
The supply of shoes
60
S
50
50
40
30
h
20
10
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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How a Lower Price Reduces PS
If P falls to $30,
P
PS = x 15 x $15
= $112.5
60
Two reasons for the
fall in PS.
50
50
1. Fall in PS
due to sellers
leaving market
S
40
30
2. Fall in PS due to
PS
remaining sellers
getting lower P
lower
20
10
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 2:
Producer Surplus
A. Find marginal
sellers cost
at Q = 10.
B. Find PS for
PS
P = $20.
Suppose P rises to $30.
Find the increase
in PS due to
C. selling 5
additional units
D. getting a higher price
on the initial 10 units
supply curve
curve
P
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
5
10
15
20
Q
25
27
A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 2:
Answers
A. At Q = 10,
marginal cost = $20
B. PS = x 10 x $20
= $100
P rises to $30.
to $30
C. PS on
additional units
= x 5 x $10 = $25
D. Increase in PS
on initial 10 units
= 10 x $10 = $100
10 $10 $100
supply curve
curve
P
50
45
40
35
30
25
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
5
10
15
20
Q
25
28
What Do CS, PS, and Total Surplus Measure?
CS = (value to buyers) (amount paid by buyers)
CS measures the benefit buyers receive
from participating in the market.
PS = (amount received by sellers) (cost to sellers)
PS measures the benefit receive
measures sellers the benefit sellers receive
from participating in the market.
Total surplus = CS + PS
CS P S
TS measures the total gains from trade in a market.
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The Markets Allocation of Resources
In a market economy, the allocation of resources
is decentralized determined by the interactions
is decentralized, determined by the interactions
of many self-interested buyers and sellers.
Is the markets allocation of resources desirable? Or
the market allocation of resources desirable? Or
would a different allocation of resources make society
better off?
better off?
To answer this, we use total surplus as a measure of
society well
societys well-being.
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Measuring Societys Well-Being
Total surplus
= CS + PS
= (value to buyers) (amount paid by buyers)
(value to buyers) (amount paid by buyers)
+ (amount received by sellers) (cost to sellers)
= (value to buyers) (cost to sellers)
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Market Efficiency
Total
= (value to buyers) (cost to sellers)
surplus
urplus
An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total
surplus. Efficiency means:
Raising or lowering the quantity of a good
would not increase total surplus.
The goods are being produced by the producers with
lowest cost.
The goods are being consumed by the buyers who
value them most highly.
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Market Efficiency
Total
= (value to buyers) (cost to sellers)
surplus
Efficiency means making the pie as big as possible.
In contrast, equity refers to whether the pie is divided
fairly.
Whats fair is subjective, harder to evaluate.
Hence, we focus on efficiency as the goal,
we focus on efficiency as the goal
even though policymakers in the real world usually care
abo eq
about equity, too.
too
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Evaluating the Market Equilibrium
P
Market eqm:
P = $30
Q = 15,000
60
Total surplus
= CS + PS
40
Is the market eqm
efficient?
efficient?
S
50
CS
30
PS
20
10
D
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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Which Buyers Get to Consume the Good?
P
Every buyer
whose WTP is
$30 will buy.
60
Every buyer
whose WTP is
< $30 will not.
40
S
50
50
30
So the buyers who
So, the buyers who
value the good most
highly are the ones
who consume it.
20
20
10
D
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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Which Sellers Produce the Good?
P
Every seller whose
cost is $30 will
produce the good.
60
Every seller whose
cost is > $30 will not.
40
Hence, the sellers
with the lowest cost
produce the good.
S
50
50
30
20
20
10
D
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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Does Eqm Q Maximize Total Surplus?
At Q = 20,
cost of producing
cost of producing
the marginal unit
is $35
60
value to consumers
of the marginal unit
is only $20
40
P
S
50
Hence, can increase
total surplus
by reducing Q.
This is true at any Q
greater than 15.
30
20
20
10
D
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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Does Eqm Q Maximize Total Surplus?
At Q = 10,
cost of producing
cost of producing
the marginal unit
is $25
60
value to consumers
of the marginal unit
is $40
40
P
S
50
Hence, can increase
total surplus
by increasing Q.
This is true at any Q
less than 15.
30
20
20
10
D
0
Q
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
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Evaluating the Market Eqm: Summary
Is the free market equilibrium allocation of resources
efficient? Does it maximize total surplus?
efficient? Does it maximize total surplus?
The eqm Q maximizes total surplus;
The goods are produced by the producers with lowest
th
cost; and
The goods are consumed by the buyers who value
th
them most highly.
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Evaluating the Market Eqm: Summary
These observations lead to three insights about market
outcomes:
outcomes:
1. Free markets allocate the supply of goods to the buyers
who value them most highly as measured by their
who value them most highly, as measured by their
willingness to pay;
2. Free markets allocate the demand of goods to the
markets allocate the demand of goods to the
sellers who can produce them at least cost; and
3. Free markets produce the quantity of goods that
markets produce the quantity of goods that
maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.
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Evaluating the Market Eqm: Summary
Therefore, economic well-being cannot be increased by
changing the allocation of consumption among buyers
changing the allocation of consumption among buyers
or the allocation of production among sellers.
The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the
equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the
sum of consumer and producer surplus. It generates an
efficient allocation of resources.
The govt cannot improve on the market outcome.
Laissez faire (French for allow them to do): the govt
should not interfere with the market
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Why Non-Market Allocations Are Usually Bad
Suppose the allocation of resources were instead
determined by central planner
determined by a central planner (e.g., the Communist
the Communist
leaders of the former Soviet Union.)
To choose an efficient allocation, the planner would need
th
to know every sellers cost
and every buyer WTP for each of the
and every buyers WTP, for each of the
thousands of goods produced in the economy.
This is practically impossible, so centrally planned
Thi
economies are never very efficient.
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Adam Smith and the Invisible Hand
Passages from The Wealth of Nations, 1776
Man has almost constant occasion for
the help of his brethren, and it is vain for
him to expect it from their benevolence
only. He will be more likely to prevail if
he can interest their self-love in his
favor and show them that it is for their
favor, and show them that it is for their
own advantage to do for him what he
requires of them
requires of them
Adam Smith,
1723-1790
It is not from the benevolence of the
butcher the brewer or the baker that
butcher, the brewer, or the baker that
we expect our dinner, but from their
regard to their own interest.
regard to their own interest.
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Adam Smith and the Invisible Hand
Passages from The Wealth of Nations, 1776
Adam Smith,
1723-1790
Every individualneither intends to
promote the public interest, nor knows
how much he is promoting it.
He intends only his own gain, and he is in
this, as in many other cases, led by an
invisible hand to promote an end which
was no part of his intention.
Nor is it always the worse for the society
is it al
the
for the societ
that it was no part of it. By pursuing his
own interest he frequently promotes
own interest he frequently promotes
that of the society more effectually than
when he really intends to promote it.
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CONCLUSION
This chapter used welfare economics to demonstrate one
of the Ten Principles:
Markets are usually a good way to
organize economic activity.
But we assumed markets are perfectly competitive.
In the real world, sometimes there are
the real world, sometimes there are
market failures, when unregulated markets fail to
allocate resources efficiently. Causes:
market power a single buyer or seller can influence
the market price, e.g. monopoly
externalities side effects of transactions,
e.g. pollution
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CONCLUSION
When markets fail, public policy may remedy the
problem and increase efficiency
problem and increase efficiency.
Welfare economics sheds light on market failures and
gov policies
govt policies.
Despite the possibility of market failure,
th
the assumptions in this chapter work well in many
thi
markets, and the invisible hand remains extremely
important
important.
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The height of the D curve reflects the value of the good
height of the
reflects the value of the good
to buyerstheir willingness to pay for it.
Consumer surplus is the difference between what buyers
surplus is the difference between what buyers
are willing to pay for a good and what they actually pay.
On the graph, consumer surplus is the area between P
the graph consumer surplus is the area between
and the D curve.
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The height of the S curve is sellers cost of producing the
height of the
is sellers cost of producing the
good. Sellers are willing to sell if the price they get is at
least as high as their cost.
Producer surplus is the difference between what sellers
receive for a good and their cost of producing it.
On the graph, producer surplus is the area between P
and the S curve.
the
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER SUMMARY
To measure of societys well-being, we use
soc
use
total surplus, the sum of consumer and producer surplus.
Efficiency means that total surplus is maximized, that the
means that total surplus is maximized that the
goods are produced by sellers with lowest cost, and that
they are consumed by buyers who most value them.
Under perfect competition, the market outcome is
efficient Altering it would reduce total surplus
efficient. Altering it would reduce total surplus.
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End: Chapter
End: Chapter 7
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